Research Article, Issue 1
Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal
Journal home page: www.amecj.com/ir
AMECJ
------------------------
Farnaz Hosseinia, Sara Davaria , and Mojtaba Arjomandib,c,*
a Islamic Azad University of Pharmaceutical Sciences (IAUPS), Medical Nano Technology Tehran, Iran
b Department of Water Sciences and Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran / Research Institute of
Petroleum Industry (RIPI), Tehran, Iran
c Department of Geophysics and Hydrogeology, Geological Survey and Mineral Explorations of Iran (GSI), Tehran, Iran
metal. In addition, aluminum which conveys to
our bodies by having agricultural products and
drinking water accumulates in the tissues of
organs, and after a little time, their functions are
suppressed. Also, a lot of analytical methods
such as weight loss measurements, environmental
scanning electron microscopy, electro-thermal
atomic absorption spectrometry, colorimetric,
kinetic fluorimetric, chelation, and inductively
coupled plasma-mass spectrometry have been
presented by a lot of researchers in the world for
determining the amount of aluminum especially
Al3+ in water, soil, and biological samples. World
A review of constructive analytical methods for determining the
amount of aluminum in environmental and human biological samples
1. Introduction
Aluminum is a toxic metal. This toxic metal
has polluted a lot of water wells, springs, lakes,
groundwater aquifers, rivers, and soil in most parts
of the world. Unfortunately, aluminum accumulates
in plants’ tissues. Also, aluminum foils during
a little time penetrated into food. Nowadays, a
lot of patients who have suffered chronic renal
failure in the world were evaluated. People are
living next to the mines are exposed to this toxic
Corresponding Author: Mojtaba Arjomandi
Email: iranma4@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.24200/amecj.v2.i01.51
A R T I C L E I N F O:
Received 28 Dec 2018
Revised form 28 Jan 2019
Accepted 12 Feb 2019
Available online 17 Mar 2019
Keywords:
Analytical and Bioanalytical methods
Aluminum
Human and Environment samples
Toxicity and Measuring.
A B S T R A C T
Aluminum is a toxic metal and cause pollution in soil, water, and air.
Afterwards, a lot of patients suffer renal failure due to the accumulation
of aluminum in the tissues of kidneys. Also, high concentration of
aluminum in plants tissues makes agricultural food toxic. Therefore,
measuring aluminum in water, soil, air, human organs, tissues of plants
and each food (or agricultural product is so necessary for protecting
human healthy. In this paper, the analytical methods which have been
applied for measuring the amount of aluminum from 1970 to 2019
are focused on. Also, the effect of some parameters such as pH and
temperature on decrease or increase in the amount of aluminum in water
and other samples are stated. Ultimately, it is worthwhile to mention
the analytical methods which are more time-consuming, cost-effective,
applicable, and precise for determining the amount of aluminum now.
In this review, the analytical methods such as fluorimetric, ICP-MS,
colorimetric, graphite furnace/flame atomic absorption spectrometry,
etc. which have been applied for measuring the amount of aluminum
(especially Al+3) in environmental and human biological samples are
assessed.
A Review of analytical methods for Al in humans; Farnaz Hosseini, et al
Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal Vol 2 (2019) 15-32
16 Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal; Vol. 2 (2019)
health organization (WHO) has studied a lot on the
amount of allowed aluminum in every organ of our
body [1-5]. Wong et al reported about aluminum
and fluoride contents of tea, with emphasis on
brick tea and their health implications [1]. Mameri
et al showed that defluoridation of water by small
plant electrocoagulation using bipolar aluminum
electrodes can be separated many pollutions from
matrix but can be caused aluminum pollutions
in environment [2]. Aluminum and heavy metal
contamination of ground water was evaluated and
determined by Momodu et al. by ET-AAS [3] and
Havas et al. reported analytical method based on
aluminum bioaccumulation in soft water at low pH
[4]. Shaw et al. showed the effect of aluminum in the
central nervous system (CNS) which have caused to
toxicity in humans and animals [5] and Brown et al.
research in analytical method in aluminum species
at mineral surfaces by instrumental analysis [6]. In
1995 -1996, Hodson et al and Neuville et al used
different methods based on for measuring Al in
plants and glasses which was effect in environment
and humans [7,8]. Krewski et al showed Human
health risk assessment for aluminium, aluminium
oxide, and aluminium hydroxide in humans in
2007 [9] and uptake of fluoride, aluminum and
molybdenum by some vegetables from irrigation
water was studied by Khandare et al. at 2006[10].
Occasionally, aluminum was used in different
industry with variety of method which was hazard
effect in humans and environment. For examples,
in 2003, Zn/Al hydrotalcite-like compound
(HTlc) was used for removal of fluoride from
aqueous solution by Das et al [11]. Cosby et al
used a modeling the effects of acid deposition
for extraction of aluminum and Assessment of a
lumped parameter model of soil water and stream
water [12]. Human exposure to aluminum was
evaluated by Niu and Exley [13-15]. Dunemann
et al., showed, simultaneous determination of Hg
(II) and alkylated Hg, Pb, Al and Sn species in
human body fluids using SPME-GC/MS-MS [16].
Messerschmidt et al used adsorptive voltammetry
procedure for the determination of platinum and
aluminum baseline levels in human body fluids
[16] and release of metal ions from dental implant
materials was shown through determination of
Al, Co, Cr, Mo, Ni, V, and Ti in organ tissue by
Lugowski et al [17]. Also, a review paper about
determination of metal-binding proteins by liquid
chromatography was reported by journal of
Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry in 2002
[18]. The concentration of other metals in human
body was evaluated based on different analytical
methods by GC-MS, SPME-CGC-ICPMS, GC‐
MIP‐AED, and anodic stripping voltammetry [19-
26]. Khanhuathon et al used a spectrophotometric
method for determination of aluminum content in
water and beverage samples employing flow-batch
sequential injection system at 2015 [27]. Liu et al
applied Determination of metals in solid samples
by complexation/supercritical fluid extraction
based on gas chromatography and atomic emission
detection for determination metals [28]. Other
methods such as, fluorescence detection and film
microelectrode based on voltammetry was used for
determination metals in body fluids was used [28-
31]. The speciation of aluminum in human serum
was done by Sanz-Medel et al in coordination
chemistry reviews [32]. In 2017, the Nano analysis
in biochemistry for separation of aluminum in
blood of dialysis patients has been developed with
graphene oxide Nanoparticles which have been
dispersed in Ionic Liquid [33].
Moshtaghie et al showed a method for aluminum
determination in serum of dialysis patients by
F-AAS [34]. Halls [35], Bettinelli [36], and Narin
[37] have determined the amount of aluminum
in dialysate fluids and environmental samples
by ET-AAS [34-36]. Aluminum in biological
fluids and dialysis patients was determined with
8-hydroxyquinoline/ extraction/fluorimetry by
Buratti [38] and Davis et al showed a method for
determination of aluminum in human bone [39].
Also, aluminum in biological and water samples
based on cloud point extraction /furnace atomic
absorption spectrometry was developed by Sang
in 2008 [40]. Selvi et al introduce a method
analysis for determination of Aluminum in dialysis
petients by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry by
17
A Review of analytical methods for aluminum; Farnaz Hosseini, et al
Coprecipitation with LaPO3 in 2017 [41]. Many
methods for determination of aluminum was done
such as lubricating oils emulsified in a sequential
injection analysis system, tri-calcium Phosphate
(TCP), eriochrome cyanine with CPE, dopamine
as an electroactive ligand, by ET-AAS/F-AAS
from 2002 to 2016 [41-45]. The risk assessment of
aluminum based on determination of aluminum in
food/meat was developed by Bassioni and Juhaiman
in 2012 and 2015 respectively [46,47]. Novel
method for determination aluminum in human brain
tissue using lumogallion /fluorescence microscopy
was obtained by Mirza in 2016 [48]. Sorenson et
al. showed that aluminum in the environment and
human samples can be evaluated and Rana Sonia
used Schiff base modified screen printed electrode
for selective determination of Al3+ in different
matrix in 2017 [49,50]. Determination of aluminum
with deep eutectic solvent/microextraction method
was developed in water and food samples in 2018
by Panhwar et al [51] and Lia-yan Liu used by ICP-
AES [52]. Zuziak et al., applied a voltammetry for
determination of aluminum in 2017 [53]. Chao,
Litov and Dórea introduced a analytical method
for breast milk samples [54-56]. In addition, many
analytical method was used for determination and
separation Al from different matrix such as blood
and water samples [57-67]. In this research paper,
it has been tried that the analytical methods which
have been used for quantifying the amount of
aluminum in water, soil, and biological samples
will be assessed. Also, the assessment helps all
scientists and researchers find and use the best
analytical approaches which are more precise and
accurate for determining the amount of aluminum in
the samples. Moreover, this review paper presents
the cost-effective and time-consuming methods
which have been used since 1970 to 2019.
2. Experimental Procedures
2.1. Methodology
In this section, the analytical methods for measuring
aluminum in human body and Environment matrix
were studied. The different metals spread on the
earth’s crust; aluminum (Al) has the third most
abundant element as compared to other metals
with percentage of 88% gram per kilogram. The
free aluminum has never seen in nature and mostly
exists in aluminum silicate minerals and rocks [6-
8]. Aluminum is also exist in different matrixes
such as; air, soil, water, foods and environment.
Based on weathering of metals, the metals enter
to waters and human. Human activity by industrial
processes, waste water effluents and dust as a
major constituent of aluminum compounds can
be released in air, waters, vegetables and human
[9,10].
Many parameters such as coordination chemistry,
pH, and characteristics have effects on behavior of
aluminum in environment [11,12]. In addition, by
biogeochemical cycle of aluminum, geochemical
formations and soil particulates, and air particles
change to aqueous environments and then enter to
soil or sediment. Aluminum is widely was used as
applied metal in all world as a building material.
The different forms of aluminum compounds have
been made by mixing of other elements. In different
pH and conditions, Al can be used with other ions
with different valence states. Aluminum is used
in many fields such as antacids (Al-Mgs), food
additives (Al(OH)3), skin ointment, cosmetics
products, container, and as a metal contaminants
appeared in milk products, juice, fish, and tea
[13-21]. Aluminum also enters in drinking water
due to the water treatment process, weathering
rocks and soils and acid raining. Aluminum is
used in many industries due to special physical
and chemical property. So, aluminum particulates
are seriously exposed by workers of aluminum
factories. The absorption of aluminum in human
body was achieved by many materials such as
citrate, Fe in hem, Ca, F, etc. [21-26]. A precise,
sensitive and selective spectrophotometric
method for determination of Al3+ using (ECR) as
a chromogenic reagent in the presence of N, N
dodecyl trimetylammonium bromide (DTAB)
has been developed by Khanhuathon et al in
2015 [27]. Modern spectrophotometric approach
for determining Al3+ in waters and soft drinks
by using eriochrome cyanine R(ECR) has been
18 Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal; Vol. 2 (2019)
presented by Khanhuathon et al. In addition, in
their approach, R(ECR) which is a chromogenic
reagent has been used in the presence of N, N
dodecyl trimetylammoniym bromide (DTAB).
Their study shows that at 584 nm, a maximum
absorption is obtained when pH is equal to 5, Al-
ECR complex is used. In the mentioned study,
the effects of some parameters such as amount
and type of surfactant, pH, and concentration of
EOR on the rate of absorption of Al have been
assessed. Moreover, after optimizing the condition,
a linear range of 0-01 to 0.50mgL-1 aluminum is
received. Also, the range of detection has been
0.0020mgL, and the range of quantification has
been 0.0126mgL. Based on their study, the relative
standard deviation of their approach has been 13%
[28-33]. When the rate of absorption is 0.05 mgL-1,
the applicability of their approach for determining
Al contents is tested on many water samples and
soft drinks. Also, the outcomes of their method
are similar to the ICP-AES method. In addition,
their methods can recovery up to 80%. In addition,
based on their studies, R(ECR) is a suitable
reagent for determining the amount of Al in every
kind of water. Moreover, in their approach, some
cons of using Al-ECR complexes such as time
consuming have been there. In addition, in the
mentioned approach, pH and temperature of the
complexes must be controlled. Also, in the study,
the effects of various surfactants on two properties
of the complexation and reagent, i.e. spectra and
sensitivity, when the pH is equal to 5 have been
considered. The consideration demonstrates the
highest sensitivity of the absorption spectrum
and maximum wavelength which is equal to
584 mm is obtained. Moreover, DTAB (dodecyl
trimetylammonium bromide) is the most effective
surfactant for improving the sensitivity of AL-ECR
[34-42]. Moreover, the study demonstrates that the
maximum absorption is obtained when pH is equal
to 5, as seen in the following figure (Figure 1).
Yildiz et al have studied on determining Al for
tri-calcium phosphate (TCP) anhydrous powder
by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer in
2016. Based on their study, there is about 350 mg/
kg (w/w) of aluminum in tri-calcium phosphate
anhydrous powder. In the study, the amount of their
metal in the powder is determined using atomic
Fig. 1. Spectra of Al-ECR complexes in the absence (a) and in the presence of various surfactants (b) DTAB,
(c) CTAB, (d) SDS and (e) Triton X-100. Conditions: 0.2 mg L-1 Al, 0.15 mmol L-1 ECR and 3 mmol L-1 surfactant,
pH 5.
19
A Review of analytical methods for aluminum Farnaz Hosseini, et al
absorption spectrophotometer. In their approach,
the outcomes of Al which have been obtained
by using the N2O-C2A2 flame are similar to the
previous studies. Also, the standard calibration
curve has been done automatically. Moreover, the
accuracy of their method has been considered using
recovery test of aluminum. Finally, their results
show that the amount of Al has been 0.5 mg/kg in
the detection limit and there is a suitable linearity
based on their analysis [43].
Hejri et al has studies on determining trace
aluminum with eriochrome cyanine R after
cloud point extraction in 2011. In their study, for
determining ultra-trace amounts of Al3+ in well
waters, the approach of cloud point extraction
has been used. In addition, during the study, the
surfactant of cetyltrimethylammonium bromid
has been used. Based on their study, linearity has
been ranged from 0.2 ng mgL-1 to 20.0 ng mgL-1.
In their study, the limits of detection is about 0.05
ng mgL-1; moreover, these limits are governed for
determining Al3+, In their method, an interaction
is there between surfactants and metal-dye
complex. Also, in the mentioned method, a ternary
complex which involves surfactant monomers is
formed. Moreover, the efficiency of their method
increases when pH is equal to 5.5. Also, their
results show that by increasing and decreasing
pH, sensitivity will be reduced [44]. In addition,
determining aluminum in biological fluids using
an electroactive ligand, dopamine have been
studied by Bi et al in 2002. Based on their study,
by increasing Al concentration, decreasing trend
of the differential pulse voltammetric anodic peak
is linear. Also, when the experimental conditions
are optimum, two linear ranges which are about 5.0
× 10-8 to 4×10-7 M and 4.0 ×107 to 7.2 × 10-6 M
Al3+ are gained. They have selected some samples
which have been obtained from synthetic renal
dialysate, human whole blood, the urine of patients
who have suffered diabetes. The amount of Al3+
has been measured in the samples using dopamine.
Afterwards, they have verified the depression
electrochemical activities of DA by making a
comparison between electrochemical behaviors
and the spectroscopic responses. In their study,
an indirect method for determining Al3+ with an
electroactive ligand has been applies in biological
fluids using differential pulse voltammetric.
Finally, in the study, a good and suitable agreement
between the results of the study and previous
studies have been made [45]. In addition, Will et al
have considered two methods for determining Al3+
concentrations in blood in 1990. In their study, the
amount of Al which causes chronic renal failure in
patients have been mentioned. In their first method,
plasma samples have been diluted with HNO3/
triton x-100 matric four times. Also, in the second
method, samples are diluted with an equal volume
of Mg (NO3)2 matrix, moreover their samples have
been atomized from a L’vov platform. In addition,
analytical recovery of Al which has been added
to is about 98%. Also, they performed and tested
the samples in sealed containers to maintain them
against contaminations.in the first method, a 10-ml
sample which is the representative of whole blood
has been selected, then centrifuged. Afterwards,
the plasma has been washed by using a disposable
polyethylene pasteur pipet at °C. In their second
method, samples have been diluted in de-ionized
water with the solution of Mg(NO3)2.6H2O which
is 5-46 mmoL L-1. Also, for analyzing the
samples, atomic-absorption spectrometric and
electrothermal graphite atomizer with the
instruments of model 5100-PE and 5100-PC
have been used [46]. Bassini et al have
studied on the amount of Al which causes that
food would be contaminated in 2012.
Unfortunately, transferring aluminum from foil
to food is hazardous. In their study, three
techniques such as weight loss
measurements, environmental scanning electron
microscopy, and inductively coupled plasma-
mass spectrometry have been used for
analyzing the samples which have been selected
from the foods that exposure to aluminum foil.
The outcomes of their studies show that in acidic
food and cooked food, the amount of Al is
higher in comparison with the other kinds of
foods.in addition, based on their results, the
leaching of Al from foil into food solution as
a solid phase is the same as liquid and vapor
phases.
20 Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal; Vol. 2 (2019)
Moreover, by increasing temperature, leaching
of Al is increased. Also, when pH decreases, the
rate of leaching rises. Moreover, using aluminum
foil causes a lot of diseases in human body [47].
Al Juhaiman has studied the cons of aluminum
foil which has been wrapped around baking meat
in 2015. Although who has reported the negative
effect of Al foils, unfortunately, a lot of companies
of producing food use it.in their study, the effect
of temperature and cooking time on the amount of
Al which leaches into the food has been assessed.
Based on their results, the leaching of Al in fish
has been the highest, and in chicken, the rate of
leaching of Al has been the lowest. Also, cooking
foods in aluminum pans or other aluminum dishes
increase the rate of leaching. In addition, based on
corrosion weight equation, the rate of Al leaching
in fish, after 60 minutes cooking, is equal to 38.67
mg Al/kg. Also, when this rate is obtained, CR is
about (7.000.71±)×10-3 [48]. In addition, Exley et
al have studied on the accumulation of aluminum
in brain tissue of human in 2016. Based on the
study, when aluminum accumulates in brain
tissue, the human will suffer neuro-degenerative
diseases which include Alzheimer’s disease. Also,
a few studies have been done on visualization of
aluminum. In this study, for measuring aluminum
in brain tissue, transversely heated graphite furnace
with atomic absorption spectrometry has been
used. In their study, fluorescence microscopy and
the flour lumogallion have been developed and
validated for showing the presence of aluminum
in brain tissue. Their research has shown that
fluorescence of aluminum in brain tissue is
different with other metals that accumulate in brain
tissue. Orange fluorescence shows that there is
some aluminum in brain tissue. Their method, i.e.
fluorescence microscopy helps physicians to get
more information about the amount of Al in brain
tissue, and thereby the prevention of being suffered
Alzheimer’s can be followed. Also, Exley et al
have used 4-chloro-3-(2,4 dihydroxyphenylazo)-2-
hydroxybezane-1-sulphonic acid as a lumogallion
for measuring the amount of Al3+ in brain tissue.
Moreover, the lumogallion has been used for
measuring the amount of Al3+ in seawater. When
it is used in seawater, the limit of detection of
CA is equal to 2 Nm. Furthermore, the method
of fluorescence has been used for measuring and
determining the amount of Al3+ in plants. Moreover,
during the test of determination of amount of
Al3+ in the left part of the brain of a patient using
fluorescence microscopy and 1Mm lumogallion,
ph has been equal to 7.4. based on their results, the
concentration of Al3+ in the left part of the brain of
the patient who has suffered alzimer disease ranges
from 0.45/g dry wt.( in the hippocampus) to
1.75/g dry wt.( in the occipital lobe). In addition,
orange fluorescence indicates that there is some
aluminum in each tissue. Also, in their study, it is
found out that if pure agarose is spread with Ca2+,
Cu2+, Mg2+, Fe3+ or Zn2+, no fluorescence related to
lumogallion is appeared. Moreover, Exley et al have
found out that the rate of replication of aluminum
concentration in brain tissue ranges from 0.01/g
dry wt. to 5.58/g dry wt. [49]. Moreover, Leng
et al have been used chromogenic agent with
alizarin reds for determining the amount of trace
aluminum in 2015. Moreover, the determination
of trace aluminum with the agent has been carried
out using ultraviolet spectrophotometer. Also, the
effective parameters on the determination such
as ph, temperature, and reaction time have been
optimized. Their results demonstrates that Fe3+
and Cu2+ have effects on determining Al3+, while
K+ and Na+ have little influence on the mentioned
approach [50-53].
In the procedure, an efficient and new approach
based on graphene oxide nanoparticles (GONPs)
which have been dispersed in ionic liquid (IL) has
been used for in-vitro separation/extraction of trace
Al from the blood of dialysis patients by ultrasound
assisted-dispersive-micro solid phase extraction
(USA-D-) procedure. Under the conditions
which have been optimized, the linear range (LR),
limit of detection (LOD), and preconcentration factor
(PF) have been obtained 0.1–4.8 µg L, 0.02 µg L,
and 25 for blood samples respectively (RSD<5%).
The results of blood samples have demonstrated
that the aluminum concentration after dialysis has
21
A Review of analytical methods for aluminum; Farnaz Hosseini, et al
been higher than before dialysis (128.6±6.7 vs
31.8±1.6, P<0.05). The mean of blood aluminum
has been significantly higher in dialysis patients
in comparison with normal control respectively
(113 5±7.12 vs 1.2±0.1). The developed approach
based on GONPs/IL has been successfully used
for extracting critical level aluminum from human
blood, and the method is suggested for in-vivo
extraction from human body of dialysis patients
after being advocated on an appropriate surface
with biocompatible materials within the human
body. Some other approaches like atomic emission
spectrometry preliminary essay to measure the
amount of biological materials which have been
carried out with existing analytical methods such as
spark or flame atomic emission spectrometry 60-63
with sensitivities approximately 300-3000 less than
ETAAS29 and before many of the contamination
problems associated with sample collection and
preparation were fully appreciated. These methods
have now been largely abandoned but other sources
for atomic emission spectrometry (AES) have
proved successful. A constant-temperature graphite
furnace and measured aluminum in blood and
digested tissues with a detection limit around two-
to fourfold better than ETAAS has been developed
by Baxter et al. Instrumentation for electrothermal
atomization atomic emission spectrometry has
to be constructed by the user; however, some
commercial inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) systems are
available.
Allainss,M-66 has been used ICP-AES for
measuring aluminum in serum, water, and dialysis
fluids. Although he achieved excellent results, it is
the experience of most workers that the sensitivity
is insufficient to determine normal concentrations
and that time consuming preconcentration steps,
with risks of contamination, are necessary. In the
other papers, the chemical speciation of aluminum
in the low molecular mass (LMM) and high
molecular mass (HMM) fractions of human serum
has been discussed by Alfredo Sanz-Medel et al
[32]. The methodologies, the experimental and
instrumental requirements and the ability of the
reported analytical procedures for identification
of HMM and LMM aluminium species in human
serum are tested in detail. Nonchromatographic
separations coupled to electrothermal atomic
absorption spectrometry for aluminum detection
are compared with chromatographic techniques
(size exclusion chromatography, anion exchange
chromatography, and fast protein liquid
chromatography) coupled to ETAAS or inductively
coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
detection for Al-HMM species assessments. As
stated before, the complexity of the human serum
samples follows a knowledge and judicious choice
of different principle based separations assisted by
complementary selective detectors. In this vein, a
most advisable first step is the fractionation of the
aluminum biocompounds into two broad groups: (a)
HMM and (b) LMM type of species. This ‘primary’
or ‘rough information’ can provide a constructive
preliminary information. Thus, by using non-
chromatographic approaches, it seems that about
10% of aluminum in human serum is ultrafiltrable
[32-41]; therefore, about 90% of aluminum should
be bound to non-ultrafiltrable HMM proteins. The
query is now which protein(s) binds aluminum
in human serum. In order to reply this query,
chromatographic approaches coupled to Al3+
specific detectors are the most powerful analytical
tools. However, at this stage, a new controversy
arose on the type of chromatography to be applied:
early workers in this field used size exclusion
chromatographic approaches for separating human
serum proteins [37,38-41]. The total concentration
of Al3+ in human serum of healthy subjects which
has been reported by Mothes et al [24] ranges
from 0.5 to 8 mg dm3, while a recent report from
the Sanz-Medel’s group [32] has indicated even
lower normal aluminum concentration (in general
below 0.35 mg dm3) [24]. Due to such very low
concentrations, the speciation of aluminum in
healthy subjects has been possible only in spiked
samples. Most of the investigators have used spiked
serum in such a way that total serum aluminum,
after spiking, ranged between 100 and 200 mg
dm3 matching high concentrations which could
22 Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal; Vol. 2 (2019)
be found in the serum of some dialysis patients.
Since reported the concentrations of ultra-filterable
aluminum in serum represented only 10/ 20% of
total aluminum [41], it was necessary to apply very
sensitive analytical procedures in order to identify
and quantify the LMM-Al complexes present even
in spiked serum and in high aluminum level sera
of dialysis patients. Nowadays, there is no doubt
that the analytical approaches for Al3+ speciation
in human serum are needed to appropriately
address the biomedical problems still waiting for
a solution. The vitality of the research work on the
development of new analytical methodologies for
Al speciation in human serum is obvious from the
number of published papers during the last decade.
However, it is obvious that the speciation of Al3+
in biological fluids has been full of problems
with difficulties in the past as is still in a state of
development that has to overcome serious problems
for its extensive application. Although earlier
work seems to have been plugged with serious
contamination problems, some sort of consensus
on the chemical speciation of serum aluminum
has emerged in recent years based on the results of
some work carried out first by ultramicrofiltration,
which demonstrates that usually 90% of total
serum Al3+ is not ultra-filterable (i.e. the metal is
bound to HMM bio compounds). Speciation of
Al3+ in human serum is an extremely difficult task
because the basal levels of this element in serum
are lower than 2 mg/l and these minute amounts are
fractioned in the speciation process. For making
matters worse, the risk of significant exogenous Al
contamination is very high.
In the other study, a reliable determination of
aluminum in serum and aqueous solutions has
been described by Moshtagi-Iie et al. In this
method, using 10% HNO, for glassware and I
mmol EDTA for plastic containers can prevent
the problem of contamination since no delectable
aluminum has been found by making a comparison
between the absorption signals obtained from
fresh sera and water samples with those obtained
from samples held in the containers (data not
shown). The temperature stages used led to the
complete atomization of aluminium and produced
a sensitivity and detection limit of 15 pg, and 2.1
mg.L-1 respectively. Nameless atomic absorption
(Perkin-Elmer 603 spectrophotometer) is used
by Parkinson et al. Moreover, a sensitivity and
detection limit of 35.5 pg and 2.3 mg.L-1 have
been presented by them. Our findings are in good
agreement with their observations. Obviously, the
sensitivity produced by our instrument has been
much betters due to 10 the atomic absorption model
which has been modern. In tile present method, the
linearity of our calibration curve has been up 10.60
ng/mL of aluminum. With such a calibration curve,
we were able to measure aluminum concentrations
in serum, although the serum should be diluted
in higher levels of aluminum. Mazzeo Farinaand
Cerulli has been reported a linearity of up to 50
ng rnL-1 which has been in agreement with our
findings. In the other study, it is found out by Halls
et al that aluminum toxicity has been shown to be a
problem for patients with renal failure on dialysis,
leading, in severe cases, to dialysis dementia, bone
disease, and anemias [35]. The measurement of
aluminum in dialysate fluid can be used to monitor
the exposure of patients on dialysis. The change
in the concentration of aluminum in the fluid
after dialysis can be used to calculate transfer of
aluminum to and from a patient, and to follow the
removal of aluminum with the chelating agent,
desferrioxamine. Moreover, 5 dialysate fluids can
be analyzed by electro-thermal atomic absorption
spectrometry with electro-thermal atomization
(ETAAS-ETA) in the same way as serum. The
object of this work has been to develop a sensitive
and accurate method based on ETAAS-ETA,
which decline the analysis time in accordance with
principles which have been described previously.
In the other methods, a modern chelating resin
based on poly [4-(1-azo-3-hydroxy-4-(N,N-dicarbo
dymethyl) aminophenyl) styrene] for determining
traces level of aluminum and titanium have been
proposed by Basargin et al. For using it in the solid
phase extraction of aluminium, a polystyrene-co-
divinylbenzene) commercial resin (Amberlite XAD-
4) has been modified by grafting onto salicylic acid
23
A Review of analytical methods for aluminum; Farnaz Hosseini, et al
by Bettinelli et al [36]. Also, a new chelating resin
by fictionalisation of polystyrene–divinylbenzene
with imidazole 4,5-dicarboxylic acid through N=N
bonding for the speciation of vanadium (IV) and
vanadium (V) have been synthesized. Deionized
water is used for preparing all solutions. Otherwise,
stated analytical-grade acids and other chemicals
used in this study have been achieved from Merck,
Darmstadt, Germany. Stock solutions of all metals,
containing 1000 mg (Merck) have been used
for preparation of the standards for the calibration
curve. The calibration standards have never been
submitted to the preconcentration procedure.
The XAD-1180-PV column approach has
been tested with model solutions prior to the
determination of aluminum in the samples. For
the metal determinations, 50 ml of solution which
contains 0.20 g of Al3+ has been added to 10 ml of
buffer solution (the desired pH between 2 and 10).
The column has been preconditioned by passing
buffer solution. The solution has been allowed
to flow through the column under gravity at the
flow rate of 4 ml min. After passing this solution
ending, the column has been rinsed with twice 10
ml of water. The adsorbed metals on the column
have been eluted with 5–10 ml portion of 2 M HCl.
The eluent has been analyzed for determining the
concentration of aluminum by graphite furnace
atomic absorption spectrometer. The characteristics
of XAD-1180-PV chelating resin were prepared.
The thermogravimetric analysis curve of the XAD-
1180- PV chelating resin is shown in three steps. In
the first step, a mass loss of 23% up to 105 C to be
due to adsorbed water on the resin. In the second
step, mass loss is 9.0% up to 340.0 C. In the third
step, mass loss is 34.0% up to 458 C. The mass
losses in the second and third steps are similar to
pyrocatechol violet. There is an agreement between
the situations and the previous studies [24–29].
When the infrared spectra Amberlite XAD-1180
and XAD-1180-PV resins have been compared
with each other, there are additional bands at 1720,
1562, 1374, 1195, and 1120 cm which seem to
originate due to the modification of resin by the
ligand. In addition, there are the characteristics of
C=O, –N=N–, C–OH, –S–O–, and C–N vibrations
respectively.
Moreover, determining trace aluminum in
biological and water samples by cloud point
extraction preconcentration and graphite furnace
atomic absorption spectrometry detection have
been studied by Hongbo Sang et al. In the practical
application of surfactants in analytical chemistry,
separation and preconcentration based on cloud
point extraction (CPE) are becoming vital. The
approach is based on the property of most non-
ionic surfactants in aqueous solutions to form
micelles and to separate into a surfactant-rich
phase of a small volume and a diluted aqueous
phase when heated to a temperature known as
the cloud point temperature. The small volume
of the surfactant-rich phase obtained with this
methodology allows us to design the extraction
schemes which are simple, cheap, highly efficient,
speedy, and lower toxicity to the environment than
those extractions that use organic solvents. Cloud
point extraction has been used for separating and
preconcentrating organic compounds as a step prior
to their determination by liquid chromatography
and capillary electrophoresis. The phase separation
phenomenon has also been used for the extraction
and preconcentration of metal ions after the
formation of sparingly water-soluble complexes.
By research, a TBS-990 atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (Beijing Purkinge General
Instrument Co. Ltd., Beijing, PR China) with a
deuterium background correction and a GF990
graphite furnace atomizer system has been used for
aluminum determination. An aluminum hollow-
cathode lamp has been used as radiation source at
309.3 nm. For CPE, aliquots of 10 mL of a solution
containing the analyte, Triton X-114 and PMBP
buffered at a suitable pH have been kept in the
thermostatic bath maintained at 40 C for 20 min,
and the surfactant-rich phase can settle through
the aqueous phase. The phase separation could
be occur faster by centrifuging for 5 min at 3000
rpm. After cooling in an ice bath, the surfactant-
rich phase became viscous and was retained at the
bottom of the tube. The aqueous phases can readily
24 Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal; Vol. 2 (2019)
be discarded simply by inverting the tubes. To
decrease the viscosity of the extract and allow its
pipetting, 200 L of 0.1 mol L HNO3 was added
to the surfactant-rich phase. 20 L of the diluted
extract was introduced into the GFAAS by manual
injection. Calibration has been performed against
aqueous standards which have been submitted to
the same CPE procedure. Ashing and atomization
curves have been established using 10 ng mL Al3+
solutions which have been sent to CPE procedure
and diluted with 10 mL of 0.1 mol L HNO3. In
addition, 20 L of the diluted extract has been used
for GFAAS analysis. The ashing and atomization
curves of Al3+ without CPE procedure were also
studied with 10 ng mL Al3+ in 0.1 mol L HNO3.
By using CPE procedure, the ashing temperature
can be increased by 500 C over the Al3+ solution
without using CPE procedure, and the aluminum
signal has been enhanced twice. There has been
no difference in the shape of the atomization curve
for aluminum with and without CPE procedure,
only the values of absorbance have been different.
In this work, the use of micelle systems as a
separation and pre-concentration for aluminum
offers some advantages including low cost, safety,
preconcentration aluminum with high recoveries
and very good extraction efficiency. The surfactant-
rich phase can be easily introduced into the graphite
furnace after dilution with 0.1 mol L HNO3, and
directly determined by GFAAS. The suggested
method can be applied to the determination of trace
amount of aluminum in various real samples.
As another method, La3+ as releasing agent and
ion suppressor in flame for determining metal
4
has been used as co-precipitant for separation and
pre-concentration of heavy metals in several water
samples. Based on our study, LaPO4 has been
firstly used for separation and preconcentration of
aluminum in human dialysis samples. This method
has several advantages such as low detection limit
(LOD), simple, rapid, economic, and precise.
The recoveries of aluminum (III) in the presence
of the most common matrix elements containing
the alkaline and alkaline earth metals were good.
A Perkin-Elmer Analyst A800 Model atomic
absorption spectrometer (Northwalk, USA) with
nitrous oxide/acetylene flame and a D2 lamp
with background corrector was used throughout
the determination of Al3+ in water solutions and
human blood samples. For co-precipitation, 2 µg
aluminum (III), 150 µg lanthanum (III), and 150
µL phosphoric acid (1:2 diluted water) have been
placed in a centrifuge tube. Then the pH of the
solution has been adapted to pH=5 with ammonium
acetate/acetic acid, and the solution has been diluted
to 50 mL with distilled water. After shaking the
solution for several seconds, the solution has been
allowed to stand for 15 min and centrifuged at 3500
rpm for 15 min. The supernatant has been removed
and the precipitate in the tube was dissolved with
0.1 mL of concentrated HNO3 and the volume was
completed to 2 mL with distilled water. The number
of five replicates for each analysis was used. The
water/serum/blood samples were determined by
flame atomic absorption spectrometry.
3. Results and Discussion
Based on some researches which have been
carried out, it is demonstrated that the range of
concentrations of aluminum next to industrial
companies is about 0.4 to 8.03 [28-42, 50-53].
Moreover, aluminum concentration in drinking
water ranges from less than < 0.001 to 1.029 mgL-
1[54]. Moreover, the amount of aluminum of milk
of human breast is about 9.2 to 49L-1 [55-57].
The concentration of aluminum of soy-based infant
formulas is higher in comparison with milk-based
infant formulas or breast milk [57]. Moreover, the
rate of Aluminum concentration in finished waters
is high due to during the treatment of water, Al3+
is added to water [58]. In addition, it had better be
mentioned that the amount of Al3+ in treated water
is three times more than the water which has not
been treated. Also, the changes of pH and the humic
acid content of the water has effects on the rate of
Al3+ concentrations which have been dissolved.
Also, when pH is less than 5, the concentration of
Al3+ increases. Unfortunately, aluminum particles
have been spread in air, water, and foods, so by
25
A Review of analytical methods for aluminum; Farnaz Hosseini, et al
inhaling air and having food and water, the rate of
Al3+ increases in body tissues [59-62]. Moreover,
using other consumer items such as antiperspirants,
buffered aspirins, antiulereative medications, and
antiacids causes an increase in the rate of Al3+
in human body. Also, by making a comparison
between aluminum which there is in drinking
water and food, and medicinal preparations which
have Al3+ in themselves, the rate of Al3+ in medical
preparations is much more. The intake or rate of
Al3+ in food ranges from 3.4 to 9 mg/day [63-65].
The amount of Al3+ per tablet/capsule/5 ml dose in
many antiacids is about 104 to 208 mg [66]. The
vegetables and fruit trees which have been grown
using treated water has received more Al3+ in
themselves. It has been found out by Nayak in 2002
that a decrease or increase in Al3+ in human body
does not have any effects on mortality (or mental
health).
People who are living next to the aluminum
companies, plants, and mines, as well as other
hazardous waste sites will suffer chronic kidney
failure. These people or patients must be treated
with phosphate binders and long-term dialysis.
The infants which have been fed soya, antiacids,
and antidiarrheal can be exposed to high levels of
aluminum. Based on TCRI (Toxic chemical release
Inventory), the amount of Aluminum which have
been released from 329 aluminum facilities to the
environment is about 45.6 million pounds [67].
Moreover, total amount of aluminum oxide which
has been released from 59 aluminum processing
companies to air, water, and soil is about 2.9 million
pounds [67].
Table 2-1 list amounts which have been released
from these companies or facilities that they are
grouped by state.
The data which have been obtained by TRI are
Table 1. Releases to the Environment from Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use Aluminum Oxide (fibrous forms)
a Reported amounts released in pounds per yearb Total release
StatecRFdAireWaterfUIgLandhOtheriOn-sitejOff-sitekOff-site
AL 200000000
AR 100000000
CA 100000000
CO 1 0 5 0 480 3 485 3 3
CT 100000000
GA 2 16 175 0 3 0 191 3 3
IA 2 0 0 0 40 0 0 40 40
IL 5 76 0 0 122 23 76 145 145
IN 3 901 250 0 5 10 1 10 1
KY 3 243 0 0 27 0 243 27 27
LA 200000000
MI 2 0 0 0 375 0 0 375 375
a The TRI data should be used with caution since only certain types of facilities are required to report. This is not an exhaustive list.
Data are rounded to nearest whole number.
b Data in TRI are maximum amounts released by each facility.
c
d Number of reporting facilities.
e The sum of fugitive and point source releases are included in releases to air by a given facility.
f Surface water discharges, waste water treatment-(metals only), and publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) (metal and metal
compounds).
g Class I wells, Class II-V wells, and underground injection.
h
i
j The sum of all releases of the chemical to air, land, water, and underground injection wells.
k Total amount of chemical transferred off-site, including to POTWs.
RF = reporting facilities; UI = underground injection
Source: TRI05 2007 (Data are from 2005)
26 Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal; Vol. 2 (2019)
not representative of the amount of Al3+ in every
region due to TRI has selected a few facilities. In
addition, inhaling and digesting Al3+ exacerbate
renal failure, bone disease, and anemia. Moreover,
dialysate fluids are made up (in human body) when
aluminium which comes from water supplies is
consumed or used. Unfortunately, human-mades
have changed for ecosystemand increase the
amount of aluminium in the environment. The
element of Al3+ accumulate in plants and water,
and thereby all herbivores are exposed to harmful
effect of aluminium. Also, when a place is polluted
with Al3+, a decrease in the density of populations
is occurred.
Emissions of a lot of Al3+ into water and soil
decreases the fertility. Al3+ as a main factor in acid
soil can limit crop productivity. The interaction
of Al3+ with cell walls can cause the disruption
of the membrane of plasma, and the disruption or
interaction increases when oxidative damage and
mitochondrial dysfunction occur. Also, Al3+ can
damage DNA. When Al3+ accumulates in plants
tissue, DNA starts to be ruined, and after a little
time, it is observed that the rate of the growth of
plants is decreased. In addition, all scientist who
are study on the effects of environmental change on
the plants are rather hesitant and in a dilemma over
whether to adopt the effect of Al3+ on the disruption
of DNA or not. After carrying out a lot of researches,
it has been found out that the accumulation of Al3+ in
tissue of plants cause that DNA with double strand
starts to be broken. In addition aluminum toxicity
depends on the acidity of soil and plant resistance.
Clinical studies show that the patients who have
high concentrations of metals in their brain, bone,
and muscle have unexplained syndrome as dialysis
dementia. Other researches demonstrated that there
are anaemia and ectopic precipitation of calcium in
aluminum toxicity syndrome. Here, some effects of
aluminum on organ of human body are illustrated,
as seen in Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Although by removing dialysis fluid, the rate of Al3+
decreases, in the patients who have suffered renal
failure, the tissue of their body, especially renal
tissues absorbs. More Al3+ in contrast with others;
therefor, in these patients, measuring the amount
of Al3+ in the blood of the patient is indispensable.
Fig. 2. some disadvantages of aluminum.
Fig. 3. Aluminum’s exposure: A schematic which
explores relationships between exposure,
immediate targets mediating exposure, sinks and
sources of biologically available aluminium with
putative mechanisms of action and finally excretion of
aluminium.
27
A Review of analytical methods for aluminum; Farnaz Hosseini, et al
of Al3+ in water, human body, and biological
samples. Among the methods which have been used
for measuring the amount of aluminum in water
industry, colorimetric and fluorimetric are common
(widespread) methods which have been used. A
kinetic fluorimetric approach with a claimed limit
of detection of 0.13j.Ig/L-1 using 1.0 ml of serum
has been described by Iannou and piporaki. The
results which have been obtained by flourimetric
method is similar to the results which have been
obtained by electrothermal atomic absorption
spectrometry (ETAAS). For an analysis that more
than 1.0 mL of serum is used, the method of
conventional fluorophore, lumogallion which has
been presented by Suzuki et al is suggested. In the
mentioned methods which have been being used for
measuring the amount of Al3+, the precipitation of
protein, as well making agents occurs. Moreover,
in the two mentioned approaches, pH must be
controlled carefully. Moreover, in colorimetric and
fluorimetric approaches, cationic interferences can
be overcome by masking agents. In addition, the
two methods may be applied for analyzing serum,
but the pros or benefits of the approaches are less
than electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry
(ETAAS). In the methods, reagents and equipment
which have been required are cheap. The methods
Fig. 4. There are 5 major routes by which
aluminium could be transported across cell membranes
or cell epi-/endothelia; (1) paracellular; (2)
transcellular; (3) active transport; (4) channels; (5)
adsorptive or receptor-mediated endocytosis. There
are 5 major classes of forms of aluminium which could
participate in these transport routes. These are shown in
the figure as; the free solvated
trivalent cation (Al3+
(aq)); low molecular weight, neutral,
soluble complexes (LMW-Al0
(aq)); high
molecular weight, neutral, soluble complexes
(HMW-Al0
(aq)); low molecular weight, charged,
soluble complexes (LMW-
Al(L)n
(aq)); nano and micro-particulates (Al(L)n(s)).
The patients who have suffered chronic renal
failure must be in intravenous therapy, and the rate
of Al in their blood must be measured after each
stage of removing dialysis fluid. Nowadays some
researches about the relation of the amount of Al3+
and dementic mechanisms of intestinal absorption
had better be carried out. Moreover there are a lot of
analytical approaches for determining the amount
Fig. 5. The skin is a sink for topically applied aluminum and will act as a source of biologically reactive aluminum
both to structures within the skin and to the systemic circulation.
28 Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal; Vol. 2 (2019)
of colorimetric and fluorimetric can be used for
screening samples which have contamination in
themselves. Also, the approaches are constructive
for analyzing dialysis concentrates.
The procedure of chelation with eight-
hydroxyquinoline when pH is equal to 6 and
isobutyl methyl ketones is extracted into 10 ml
has been suggested by Mazzeo and Lourenzyi
for determining Al3+ in 200 ml of dialysis fluid
concenter by FAAS. A detection limit of 30
has been obtained. Moreover no interferences from
the high salt content of the concentrates have been
found. Also, after analyzing the samples which
have been dissolved in acid and ashed at 800°C
by FAAS, it has been found out that the migration
of aluminum occurs at the pH which is equal to 2
while the storage is prolonged and temperature is
increasing. Marcin Frankowski et al have used some
approaches such as GF-AAS, ICP-AES, and ICP-
MS to determine the amount of Al3+ in groundwater
samples. Moreover, inorganic aluminum complexes
have been modeled by them. Their studies have
been focused on some ground water samples which
have been selected from the Miocene aquifer
of the city of Poznan, located in Poland. The
amount of Al3+ in the aquifer is variable – from
0.0001 to 725L-1. Three analytical methods, i.e.
graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry
(GF-AAS), inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrometry (ICP-MS), and Inductively
Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry
(ICP-OES) for measuring the amount of aluminum
in the groundwater have been used. The results
which have been obtained from analytical methods
have been have been used to determine the trend
of groundwater from the Mesozoic aquifer to
the Miocene aquifer. Distribution of Al3+ has
been modeled by Frankowski et al in 2011. After
modeling, the existence of aluminum hydroxyl
complexes in some parts of the groundwater has
been confirmed [68]. In addition, based on the
study which has been carried out by Frankowski
et al in 2011, in spite of the fact that sulphates
and organic matter in the most of groundwater
samples are dominant, the aluminum complexes
have never participated in the reaction with the
ligands (based on the modelling) [68]. Also, the
change of the amount of aluminum concentration
in groundwater aquifers due to aluminum’s
amphoteric property causes that founa and flora
will be ruined. Moreover, the low concentration
of aluminum in groundwater aquifer are obtained
when the transformations of aluminosilicates occur
in the active water exchange zone. Soluble complex
bonds with dissolved fluoride (AlF2+, F2
+, AlF3
0,
AlF4
-), Sulphate (AlSO4
+, Al(SO4)2-), phosphate
(AlHPO4
2+, AlHPO4
+) ligands.
With low – molecular organic acids are the major
sources of aluminum in groundwater. In most
aquifers, based on their studies, Al3+ and hydroxide
complexes as exchangeable aluminum fractions are
the main sources of aluminum [68]. Moreover, the
penetration of Al3+, AlOH2+, and Al(OH)2
+into the
agricultural products causes toxicity to humans.
Based on the research which has been carried out
by Frankowski et al in 2011, the high concentrations
of aluminum in groundwater aquifers demonstrate
that hydroxide complexes and organic complexes
are dominant in the aquifers [68]. The concentration
of trace aluminum in groundwater, surface water,
the river have been usually determined by using
GF-ASS (graphite furnace Atomic Absorption
spectrometry). In addition, for measuring the
amount of aluminum in limed lakes, forest soil
waters, and springs, using inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is suggested.
Also, for determining the amount of aluminum
in drinking water, inductively coupled plasma
Optical Emission spectrometry (ISP – OES) has
been used. Based on some researches, inductively
coupled plasma mass spectrometry method is
not constructive for determining the amount of
aluminum in water due to the interferences which
have been caused by other elements in water
samples.
4. Conclusions
In this research paper, the importance of measuring
the amount of aluminum complexes in the nature
(soil and water) and human bodies has been paid
29
A Review of analytical methods for aluminum; Farnaz Hosseini, et al
attention to. Also, some researchers which have
been carried out have been selected and assessed.
All researches have tried to present the best
analytical methods which are more accurate and
precise for determining the amount of aluminum in
water, soil, and biological samples. From 1985 to
2018, the limit of detection has become lower, and
limit of quantification has extended. Nowadays, the
approaches which have been used are more precise,
time-consuming, cost-effective, and applicable.
Also. At the present time, nano-absorbents are used
for separation of Al3+ from blood of human tissues,
water, soil, and plants’ tissues. Between 2016 and
2017, flame atomic absorption spectrometry has
been used to determine the amount of aluminum
in tricalcium phosphate anhydrous powder which
contains about 350mgKg-1 aluminum in itself.
From 2011 up to now, for determining the
amount of Al3+ in some top and well water samples,
in some areas of Iran, surfactant
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and. The
method of cloud point extraction have been used
with each other. From 2013 to 2019, for
quantifying the amount of Al3+ in waters and
soft drinks of the country of Thailand,
spectrophotometric approach using eriochrom
cyanine has been used. Also, in this
method, the limit of detection is less than
0.0008 and the limit of detection is about
0.0125 mg L-1. From, 1982 up to now, for
quantifying the amount of aluminum in
human blood, serum, urine, and tissues, in
some European hospital, using electro-thermal
atomic absorption spectrometry has been
suggested. In the decade of 1990, in the
hospital of USA, for determining the amount of
aluminum in blood, the method of diluting
plasma samples with HNO3/Triton X-100, matrix
modifier fourfold was used. Moreover, for
measuring the amount of aluminum in the
patients who have suffered less renal failure, or
their renal functions are normal, diluting
samples with an equal volume of Mg (NO3)2
matrix modifier and atomizing the samples from
a L’vov platform were usual methods. Also,
based on the studies which have been carried out
from 2009 to 2019 about the determination of
aluminum in groundwater aquifers, in most parts
of Eurasia and USA, the concentration of trace
aluminum in groundwater, surface water, and river
have been usually quantified by using GF-ASS
(graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry);
moreover, for measuring the amount of aluminum
in limed lakes, forest soil waters, and springs, using
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) has rarely been suggested. In addition,
for determining the amount of aluminum in drinking
water, inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectrometry (ICP-OES) has been used. Also, since
2017 to 2019, in some groundwater aquifers of
London, chemometric methods using optimization
algorithms have been common among a lot of
researchers, scientist, and hydrogeologists for
determining the amount of aluminum. Furthermore,
based on most researches, when pH is more than
7.0, the solubility of aluminum increases, and then
water is polluted. Afterward, lot of people will
suffer renal failure or chronic renal failure.
5. Nomenclatures
CNS: Central Nervous System
CPE: Cloud Point Extraction
ETAAS: Electrothermal Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry
GONPs: Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles
GF-ASS: Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry
IL: Ionic liquid
ICP-MS: Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometry
ICP-OES: Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical
Emission Spectrometry
LR: linear range
LOD: limit of detection
PF: Preconcentration Factor
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