Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

Research Article, Issue 4

Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemi s try Journal

Journal home page: www.amecj.com/ir

AMECJ

Review Article: Development of biodegradable lms using

nanocellulose for food packaging application

Asha Valsalana,*, and Paramasivan Sivaranjana a

a Department of Chemis try, School of Advanced Sciences, Kalasalingam Academy

of Research and Education Krishnankoil, Srivilliputhur, Tamil Nadu 626126

ABS TRACT

Due to the development of nanotechnology and changing cu s tomer

demands for food safety and hygiene, the food packaging indu s try is

growing signicantly. In today’s worldwide market, active packaging

oers a number of advantages over traditional wrapping because of

its capacity to absorb or release sub s tances to improve the shelf life

of food. Traditional food packaging materials are dicult to recycle

and are made from nonrenewable fossil fuels. The development of

biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose can be a good replacement

for synthetic pla s tic packaging materials and can be a good solution

for this problem. Other than that it has multiple advantages regarding

tensile and physical properties, also as reducing health hazards.

Tensile and physical characteri s tics are improved and water vapor

permeability is decreased with the addition of cellulose nanoparticles

to the biodegradable lms/biodegradable composite lms. The

production of biodegradable materials employing Nano cellulose has

been covered in this review s tudy in four dierent ways, including

extracts from agricultural wa s te, rice husk, various plant extracts, and

biopolymer composite material in food packaging. The reason for

using Nano cellulose-based biodegradable lms in food packaging

is also reviewed in this article. The key points for future research in

overcoming the problems related to Nano cellulose and biodegradable

lms are also predicted in the paper.

Keywords:

Nano cellulose,

Biodegradable Films,

Food Packaging,

Extraction methods,

Te s t methods,

Tensile and physical characteri s tics

ARTICLE INFO:

Received 16 Aug 2022

Revised form 20 Oct 2022

Accepted 11 Nov 2022

Available online 30 Dec 2022

*Corresponding Author: Asha Valsalan

Email: id-bs.ashav@sbcemail.in

https://doi.org/10.24200/amecj.v5.i04.207

1. Introduction

The rapid population expansion, high s tandards

of living, and high rates of energy and goods

consumption all contribute to signicant levels of

wa s te generation that, if not properly disposed or

recycled, represent serious risks to the environment

[1]. Pla s tic wa s te is a non-biodegradable component

that can linger in the environment for hundreds

of years. Both people and animals should avoid

them because of how much land they consume.

Additionally, as pla s tics are petroleum-based

materials, the ongoing engineering of pla s tics,

which results in the depletion of petroleum, oers

additional issues [2]. Over the pa s t few decades,

petroleum-based materials have been widely

used in a variety of indu s tries, especially for food

wrapping because of their aordability, exciting

technological features, as well as mechanical and

physical capabilities. The bulk of pla s tics made

from fossil fuels is bad for both public health and

the environment [3]. In order to replace petroleum-

based goods in food packaging applications,

more renewable alternatives are being sought

after. A large amount of the numerous tones of

------------------------

inedible plant debris produced each year gets

landlled. Reusing lignocellulose biomass wa s tes

has received attention recently as a healthy and

practical sub s titute for the usage of fossil fuels.

Due to the enormous amount of agricultural wa s te

produced annually, this reuse serves two purposes:

Reducing landll overow and Reducing reliance

on fossil fuels, with all the attendant environmental

advantages [4]. They might also be referred to

as bio-wa s te. Sludge from wa s tewater treatment

plants, food manufacturing plant wa s te, and trade

trash are all examples of biodegradable wa s tes

[5]. Nowadays, biodegradable wa s tes are used

in an eective manner for the manufacturing of

various products, especially in the food packaging

indu s tries. The food packing sector is currently

looking for lightweight, biodegradable packaging

in an eort to utilize fewer resources, produce

less wa s te, save transportation co s ts, maintain the

freshness of food materials, and also to reduce

health hazards [6]. Pla s tic food packaging materials

are replaced by producing biodegradable lms

incorporated with Nano cellulose extracted from

various types of biodegradable wa s tes like agri-

wa s te, plant extracts, biodegradable polymers, etc.

Biodegradable lms are produced by adding some

additives with them during the manufacturing

process. Biodegradable lms are an alternative to

petroleum-based and pla s tic-based lms.

2. Experimental

2.1. Nano Cellulose

Using various extraction methods, native cellulose

is converted into the di s tinctive and natural

molecule known as Nano cellulose. The amazing

properties of Nano cellulose, such as its di s tinct

surface chemi s try, exceptional physiochemical

toughness, and abundance of hydrophilic groups

for alteration, are increasingly attracting attention.

In addition to being environmentally friendly,

it has signicant biological qualities such as

recyclability, bioactivity, and non-toxicity [7]. The

term “Nano cellulose” refers to a class of cellulosic

nanoparticles with at lea s t one dimension up to

100 nm. Cellulose nanobers (CNF), cellulose

nanocry s tals (CNC), and bacterial Nano cellulose

(BNC) are the three varieties of “Nano cellulose”

that may be identied by their diameters [8]. The

picture of Nano cellulose is depicted in Figure 1.

2.2. Basic Extraction method of Nano cellulose

Many techniques have been developed to extract

Nano cellulose from cellulose ber. The diverse

extraction methods led to a variety in the kinds and

quality of the Nano cellulose that was produced.

The three fundamental extraction techniques

are acid degradation, enzymatic hydrolysis, and

mechanical procedure. Acid hydrolysis is one of

the main techniques for eliminating Nano cellulose

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

Fig. 1. The picture of Nano cellulose [8]

from cellulosic products. Because cellulose chains

include equally arranged and un s tructured regions,

the organized regions survive acid degradation

while the disorganized regions break down quickly.

The acid mo s t frequently used for acid hydrolysis

is sulfuric acid. Enzymes are used in the biological

process known as enzymatic hydrolysis to degrade

or modify brous material. The biological treatment

with enzymes may typically be carried out under

mode s t conditions, although a lengthy procedure

is needed. To solve this problem, enzymatic

hydrolysis is always used in conjunction with other

methods. A mechanical process isolates cellulose

brils, resulting in Micro reinforcing materials

cellulose, by using a powerful shear force to split the

cellulose bres along their longitudinal axis. The

three mechanical processes that are mo s t frequently

used are ball milling, high-pressure homogeneity,

and ultrasonication [9]. The separation of Micro

cellulose from biomass including lignocellulose is

depicted in Figure 2.

2.3. Types of Nano cellulose

Below is an explanation of the three dierent types

of Nano cellulose: cellulose nanobers (CNF),

cellulose nanocry s tals (CNC), and bacterial Nano

cellulose (BNC).

2.3.1. Cellulose Nanobers (CNF)

Length, ela s tic, and intertwined nanoscale bers

known as “cellulose nanobers” (CNF) can be

recovered from lignocellulose-containing crops.

Due to their superior hardness, rigidity, lightweight,

environmental friendliness, and recyclability,

CNFs are being researched for usage in a variety of

applications, including electronics, packaging, and

nanocomposites [10]. CNF have cry s talline and

amorphous regions, and they resemble ropes. When

dried, CNF form a highly connected network as a

result of s trong intermolecular hydrogen bonding

[11]. The SEM picture of CNF is displayed in the

following Figure 3.

2.3.2. Cellulose Nanocrys tals (CNC)

The particles known as cellulose nanocry s tals

(CNC) are small, s ti, and rod-shaped. It is also

known as Cellulose Nano whiskers. They are

typically created through the process of s trong acid

hydrolysis, which separates the s ti cry s talline

sections from the amorphous phases of cellulose

s trands [11]. Researchers in both research and

indu s trial applications have shown a great deal of

intere s t in cellulose nanocry s tals (CNCs) because

of their intriguing s tructural features and di s tinctive

physicochemical properties, like amazing s tructural

Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

Fig. 2. The illu s tration of Nano cellulose extraction from lignocellulose biomass [9]

rigidity, large surface region, numerous hydroxyl

groups for chemical treatment, lightweight, and

biodegradability. CNCs are a s trong candidate for

use in a variety of indu s tries. In addition, cellulose

nanocry s tal extraction and surface modication

continue to advance in response to producers’

growing demand for cellulose nanocry s tal-based

goods [12]. Figure 4, presents the image of CNC.

2.3.3. Bacterial Nano cellulose (BNC)

Bacterial Nano cellulose (BNC), a naturally

occurring biopolymer of enormous signicance

in many technical domains, has exceptional

physicochemical and biological features. Specic

species of bacteria generate bacterial Nano

cellulose (BNC), a promising natural biopolymer,

as an exopolysaccharide of D glucopyranose. BNC

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

Fig. 3. SEM of Cellulose Nanobers (CNF) [11]

Fig. 4. Cellulose Nanocry s tals (CNC) [12]

is 99 percent water but has excellent mechanical

properties. Due to its ability to s tore water and

its Nanos tructured form, which is similar to the

extracellular matrix protein collagen, BNC is

particularly suitable for cellular immobilization

and adhesion. Bacterial Nano cellulose is suited for

a variety of uses since it has a number of unique

characteri s tics and is a product that is generally

regarded as safe (GRAS) [13]. The picture of BNC

[14] is displayed in the Figure 5.

2.4. Reason for using Nano cellulose based

biodegradable lms in food packaging

The main objective of food packaging is to

preserve the production of agricultural products

through s torage and delivery. As a result, it’s

critical to grow the shelf life of food goods by

avoiding issues such as microbial deterioration

and chemical pollutants, carbon dioxide, water

vapor permeation, ammable sub s tances,

dampness, and light exposure as well as outside

physical inuences. The materials used for

packaging mu s t ensure physical safety and

e s tablish suitable physicochemical conditions to

ensure food quality [15]. Hence Nano cellulose

incorporated biodegradable lms thus produced

plays a vital role as a food packaging material by

overcoming all these defects due to their benecial

amount of physical, chemical, water solubility,

and water absorption properties. These properties

are discussed briey in the upcoming sections.

In this paper, a review based on development of

biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose from

various extracts and useful analyzing in food

packaging applications was presented. This review

paper’s s tructure is followed as: the experimental

section evaluates the exi s ting research on

biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose in four

dierent directions, the results section gives the

summary of this paper, another section comes out

with the key points to be researched in the future

and conclusion.

Fig. 5. Bacterial Nano cellulose (BNC: A-D) [14]

Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

3. Results of literature review

This section reviews the development of

biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose from

– agricultural wa s te, rice Husk, various plant

extracts, and biopolymer composite material in

food packaging. Agricultural Wa s te: Agro-wa s tes

come from a variety of materials, including rice

husks, wheat s traw, palm oil bers, pineapple,

orange, and tomato pomace, grape pomace, lemon

peels, and sugarcane bagasse [16]. Agro-indu s trial

wa s te is a byproduct of agricultural-based

businesses that is frequently rich in lignocellulose

resources and bioactive compounds. The indu s tries

where these pollutants are frequently disposed of

in uncontrolled procedures have weak regulations

for their management. These actions have had a

negative impact on the ecology and the economy

as a whole. Due to this, extensive research has been

done to extract useful materials from these wa s tes

[17]. Rice husk is a lignocellulose biomass, that

comes under non-woody biomass sources. Non-

woody plants are ones that have frail s tems and are

susceptible to yearly regrowth to the ground. They

go by the name herbaceous plants as well [18].

Some of the Plant extracts used for Nano cellulose

production, that we have discussed in the upcoming

section are as follows: sugarcane bagasse, olive

tree pruning scraps, yam beam, sunower oil cake

(SOC), Natural essential oil from the clove bud,

buered with fermented black tea and cellulose

nanocry s tals ber. Biopolymer composites are

reinforced polymer materials in which the polymer

functions as a matrix resin that reaches the bundles

of reinforcement and forms bonds with it [19].

The upcoming sections deeply describe the related

works of the above-mentioned directions.

3.1. Biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose

from agricultural was te

Ilya et al examined the eects of dierent

sugar palm nano brillated cellulose (SPNFCs)

reinforced sugar palm s tarch (SPS) concentrations

on the morphological, s tructural, and physical

characteri s tics of the bio nanocomposite lm [20].

S tarch granules and laments from sugarcane plants

are regarded as agricultural wa s te. A suspended

sentence of sugar palm Nano brillated cellulose

(SPNFCs) with a mean duration of many μm in

diameter and diameters of 5.5 and 0.99 nm was

made from sugar palm bres using a high-pressure

homogenization technique. SPNFCs were then used

to s trengthen the sugarcane bagasse carbohydrate

sequence for the creation of bio nanocomposites

using a remedy technique. The miscibility of SPS

and SPNFCs was shown to be good using FESEM

analysis of the ca s ting solution. The FTIR analysis

proved that intramolecular hydrogen bonds exi s ted

between the SPS and SPNFCs and that they were

compatible. SPS/SPNFC bio nanocomposite

lms outperform control carbohydrate bio

nanocomposite lms in terms of physical and

mechanical properties. The segmental molecular

chains of the carbohydrate bio composite became

less mobile and exible as a result of the addition

of Nano-reinforcements, which decreased the

elongation at break. The ductility s trength

and modulus of the nanocomposite lms were

dramatically increased from 6.80 to 10.68 MPa and

59.07 to 121.26 MPa, respectively, by the increase

in SPNFC reinforcement from 0 to 1.0 wt. percent.

Adriana Nicoletta Frone et al used plum shells’

agricultural residues to Nano cellulose as a

biopolymer reinforcement [21]. Cellulose

nanocry s tals (CN) and cellulose nanobers (CF) are

the two types of Nano cellulose derived from

plum seed shells. For the r s t time, CN and CF of

cherry fruit skins were used as reinforcing agents

in a polylactic acid/poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PLA/

PHB) matrix using a solution-ca s ting technique.

A co s t-eective and successful s trategy to utilize

agricultural wa s te as a source of production for

elevated goods is to adopt this technique. Some of

the CF type’s limitations in terms of morphological

characterization and thermal performance include

that type CN cellulose nanocry s tals are more

similar in shape, have a smooth texture, and have a

larger image size. The melting temperature of CN

was somewhat less than that of CF due to the sulfate

groups added to the cellulose’s external side during

the hydrolysis process, which led to the dewatering

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

of the cellulose ber and a decrease in thermal

properties. Thermal and XRD te s ts showed that

adding CN improved the PLA/PHB bio-composite

lm’s thermo s tability and cry s talline nature.

According to report of Reshmy et al, jackfruit

(Artocarpus heterophyllus) skin was used as the

hydrolysis source for pure Nano cellulose [22].

Using liquid water evaporation, the thin lms were

created using BS as the lling, activator, and NC

as the sub s trate. Solvent ca s ting Nano cellulose

and various pla s ticizers were used to make various

thin lms. FT-IR and XRD were used to describe

thin lms, and FESEM was used to explore surface

changes. The advantages of this s trategy are as

follows: (i) To avoid chlorine bleaching solutions

for natural bers, the raw material was bleached

with a 4 percent soapnut solution. (i) A unique

lling named Boswellia serrata (BS) was used to

enhance the properties of NC thin lms for future

applications. The breakage of bonds between NC

and pla s ticizers caused commodities to decay

during food s torage due to the large price of WHC

for NC alone and NC/Gly/BS. This resulted in less

moi s ture absorption and swelling compared to

other thin lms.

Sheng Xu et al s tated that Artemisia selengensis

s talks were used as a source of hemicelluloses (ASH)

and cellulose nanocry s tals to create biodegradable

lms (ASCNC) [23]. Acid hydrolysis was used to

separate the ASCNC from the ASC. SEM, TEM

and FTIR methods are used for the te s t results,

and OT and WVP are also checked. The composite

membranes enhanced by ASCNC exhibited

increased durability and performed much better as a

water vapor shield when contra s ted to the reference

ASH/PVA lm. Additionally, compared with the

control screen, the ASCNC-enhanced ASH/PVA

composite material decreased light transmission

considerably. In the morphology of composite

lms, the ASH/PVA lm’s cross-section had many

voids, and the s tructure was loose. With ASCNC

loading reaching 9%, the composite lm’s tensile

s trength improved by 80.1 percent to 36.21 MPa,

while the water vapor transfer rate fell by 15.45

percent when 12 percent ASCNC was added.

Banana pseudo- s tems were proposed as a potential

source of environmentally friendly Nano cellulose-

based recyclable pla s tic as an agricultural wa s te

by R. H. Fitri Faradilla et al [24]. This s tudy

looked closely at the impact of nanoclay (NC) and

graphene oxide (GO) as nanollers and glycerol

as a lubricant on the mechanical, morphological,

chemical, thermal, and impact resi s tance of banana

pseudo- s tem Nano cellulose lms. TEM, SEM,

FEI NOVA 230, AFM, Bruker, X-ray diraction

(XRD), panalytical Xpert multipurpose X-ray

diraction, thermos gravimetric analysis, and

dierential scanning calorimetry, ATR-FTIR,

Bruker IFS 66/S, and Mocon-OX-TRAN are the

te s ting methods used to nd the results. Synergi s tic

eects were seen when nanoparticles and glycerin

were combined. Tensile modulus and exibility

were both risen, and the contact area of the motion

pictures was considerably higher than that of lms

containing only nanoparticles. The thermopla s tic

had a massive eect on the barrier properties of

the composites, while the glycerol concentration

was positively correlated with the water vapour

permeability. Oxygen permeability, however, was

reduced when glycerol content increased. Also, the

lms’ tensile s trength was found to be improved by

NC and GO, but not their ela s ticity. These results

s trongly imply that the characteri s tics of the banana

pseudo- s tem Nano cellulose lm may be altered

by modifying the nature and amount of additional

chemicals.

It was sugge s ted to separate bulgur bran into

cellulose and hemicellulose-rich components,

opening the way for exploiting this under-utilized

agro-indu s trial biomass by Didem Sutay Kocabas

et al [25]. Commercial cellulose nanocry s tal

(CNC) and cellulose nanober (CNF) were

added to the hemicellulose sub s trate to remove

bottlenecks. The characteri s tics of plain and Nano

cellulose-reinforced lms were compared using

the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), dierential

scanning calorimetry (DSC), and Fourier transform

infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) techniques. A dense

architecture was discovered by SEM analysis

of lms reinforced with CNC and CNF. The

Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

hemicellulose channel’s tensile properties were

signicantly improved by adding CNC and CNF as

lls. After adding Nano cellulose, the lms’ water

vapour permeability (WVP), light transmittance,

overall mismatching, and biocompatible all fell.

Additionally, the hemicellulose precipitate contains

lignin (6.70 percent), s tarch, potassium acetate,

and other impurities. The proposed full-quadratic

model was shown to have excellent accuracy

within the 95 percent condence interval (R2 =

0.9877). According to the ndings, lms with 10%

(w/w) CNC and 10% (w/w) CNF incorporation had

a 21.3 percent lower FWS when compared to neat

pictures.

Krishnavani Pavalaydon et al extracted Micro

cellulose from cassava peel and coco ber

using chemical processes such as mercerization,

bleaching, and acid hydrolysis [26]. Taguchi design

is the technique used in the process of Fourier-

Transform(FT). The te s t techniques employed in

the procedure include DLS, transmission electron

microscopy, and infrared spectroscopic. Bio-

nanocomposite lms were created using the solvent

ca s ting method using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as

the matrix. Excellent sources of Micro cellulosic

include sugarcane bagasse and coir, which can be

used to create bio-composites having good s trength

properties. Nanocellulose, which is made from

bagasse, r s t appeared as crooked and minute

circular particles. The highe s t tensile s trength (38.2

MPa) was achieved for CNCs derived from coir at

a CNC/PVA loading of 0.5 wt%, which is a 96.9

percent improvement in s trength properties over

the un s trengthened PVA sub s trate.

According to Vu Nang An et al, the goal of the s tudy

is to separate high-cry s tallinity Cellulose Nano

Cry s tals (CNCs) from Vietnamese agricultural

residues (Nypa Fruticans trunk, coconut husk ber,

and rice husk) [27]. Using a three- s tep process that

involved pre-treatment with formic/peroxyformic

acids, processing with hydrogen peroxide/sodium

hydroxide, and disintegration by hydrolysis, so,

CNCs were extracted from the aforementioned

natural origin. After every phase of behavior, the

thermophysical characteri s tics of the obtained

resources were examined using XRD, TGA, TEM,

and FT-IR s tudies. Nano cellulose bres were

found to have improved thermal s tability through

thermogravimetric analysis, making them suitable

for the creation of bio nanocomposites for a variety

of uses, including the production of functional

paper, exible assi s tance for the synthesis of metal/

oxide metallic nanoparticles, and cell wall lters.

The amorphous portions of the cellulose s tructure

have been utterly de s troyed by the corrosive ions,

remaining the cry s talline s tructure unharmed.

Because of this, CNCs are both shorter and have

a higher CrI than cellulose. The CNCs nanobers

have a high cry s talline index (almo s t 80%),

increased heat s tability, and indicating an extensive

variety of applications. Hui Li et al aimed to isolate

cellulose nanocry s tals (CNC) from pea hull and

te s t their capacity to s trengthen carboxymethyl

cellulose (CMC) lm [28]. To better utilize and get

rid of cheap and plentiful farmed pea husk trash,

the needle-like CNC was nally recovered from

the trash by alkalization, washing, and sulfuric acid

degradation. The solvent ca s ting process produced

CNC, which was then used as a reinforcing

component in the creation of compound products

which was depended on CMC. The te s ts included

scanning electron microscopy, ATR-FTIR and X-ray

diraction analysis, hand-held digital microscopy,

gravimetric technique, and DSC. The CMC/CNC

nanocomposites saw improvements in their thermal

properties, ultraviolet layer, mechanical properties,

and water vapor barrier. The lower the endothermic

peak, the larger the additional concentration of

CNC. This was due to a lower hygroscopic anity

caused by the addition of additional sulfate groups

to the CMC/CNC nanocomposite. In comparison

to pure CMC lm, the 5-weight percent CNC

reinforced composite lm had a 53.4 percent lower

water vapour absorption and a 50.8 percent better

durability.

According to research of Jayachandra S. Yaradoddi

et al, the objective is to transform carboxymethyl

cellulose (CMC), which is generated from

agricultural residues, into a workable, biodegradable

pla s tic that often includes a packaging material [29].

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

Mixtures were created using CMC (trash generated),

gelatin, agar, and varied levels of glycerol; 1.5

percent (sample A), 2 percent (sample B), and 2.5

percent (sample C) were added. CMC was recovered

from agricultural residues, primarily cane sugar

wa s te. Thermogravimetric analysis(TGA), Fourier

Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and

Dierential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) were used

to describe the physiochemical parameters of each

created biodegradable pla s tic (samples A, B, and

C). Sample C, which was made with gelatin, CMC,

agar, and 2.0 percent glycerol, was discovered to be

the be s t combination and ideal for possible future

use in food applications because it had identied

the s trengths like the smalle s t water vapour

permeability and the greate s t recyclability rate

when compared to other samples. As commercially

available CMS is currently too expensive, farm

wa s te-derived carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is

used largely to reduce the co s t of lm development.

As a consequence, sample C’s (gelatin+CMC+agar)

lm functioned better than samples A and B related

to the addition of glycerol at a softener concentration

of 2.0 percent.

Table 1 shows the overall review of the techniques

such as Nano cellulose produced, the material,

tes ting method, advantages, limitations, and

performance parameters. Table 1 explained the

direction - Biodegradable lms using Nano

cellulose from agricultural wa s te.

Table 1. Review on Biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose from agricultural wa s te

Technique Nano cellulose

Produced

Material Te s ting

Method

Advantages Limitation PP Ref.

HPHM & SCM SPNFCs AW-SPF FESEM and

FTIR

MP> CSBNF Reduced the

elongation at break

Aecting mobility

and ductility of

the biopolymer’s

segmental

TS=6.8 - 10.7 MPa

Modulus= 59.1 - 121.3

MPa

[20]

Solution-ca s ting

method

CF and CN Agri wa s te-

PSS

Thermal

and XRD

analyses

Co s t-eective and

well-organized

Compared to the

CF type, type CN’s

morphology is much

more regular, its

surface is ner, and

its aspect ratio is

higher.

The thermal s tability

was improved by

the calculation of

CN and cry s tallinity

of the PLA/PHB

biocomposite lm

[21]

Acid hydrolysis,

BS ller and NC

Solvent ca s ting

Nano cellulose

(i)Agri wa s te

- Jackfruit

peel

(ii)Bleaching

Agent

- Soapnut

solution

FT-IR, XRD

and FESEM

(i)Chlorine bleaching

solutions

(i)Boswellia serrata (BS)

improve the characteri s-

tics of NC thin lms

Because of the

tall value of WHC

for NC alone

and NC/Gly/BS,

commodities spoiled

during food s torage

due to breakdown of

bonds between NC

and pla s ticizers

When compared

to other thin lms,

this resulted in less

moi s ture absorption

and swelling

[22]

Acid hydrolysis Hemicelluloses

(ASH) and

cellulose

nanocry s tals

(ASCNC)

Agri wa s te

- Artemisia

selengensis

s traw

SEM, TEM

and FTIR

methods,

OT and

WVP is also

checked.

water vapour shield

eectiveness, and light

transmission reduction.

ASH/PVA lm’s

cross section had a

lot of voids and the

s tructure was loose

With ASCNC loading

reaching 9%, the

composite lm’s

tensile s trength

improved 80.1 percent

to 36.21 MPa

[23]

Modied Nano

cellulose lm

Banana pseu-

do- s tem Nano

cellulose lms

Agri wa s te

- banana

pseudo- s tem

TEM, SEM,

FEI NOVA

230, AFM,

Bruker,

XRD, ATR-

FTIR,

(i) Enhanced tensile

power and exibility,

(ii) The greate materials’

contact angle

(iii) The lm resi s tance

aected by the pla s ti-

ciser.

(i)Oxygen permea-

bility, reduced when

glycerol content

increased

(ii)Film’s tensile

s trength was found

to be improved by

NC and GO, but not

their ela s ticity

By varying the type

and concentration

of added additives,

the properties of the

banana pseudo- s tem

Nano cellulose lm

might be modied.

[24]

Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

3.2. Biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose

from rice Husk

Rice Husks were cleaned, chemically hydrolyzed,

and ultrasonically processed at a low temperature

by Pedro Nascimento et al to produce Nano

cellulose [30]. An agricultural sector byproduct

called rice husk can be utilized to make Nano

cellulose. SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, TGA, and DSC

are the te s ts undergone to nd the characterization

of Nano cellulose-reinforced s tarch-glycerol lms.

When added as reinforcement to the s tarch lms,

the Nano cellulose created webs of connected, tiny

bers (about 100 nm in diameter) that reduced

opacity, increased mechanical characteri s tics, and

were less permeable to water vapor. The inclusion

of 2.5 percent (w/w) of the nano s tructures to

s tarch-glycerol lms increased the mechanical

characteri s tics, water vapor permeability, and

opacity of s tarch lms (made by extrusion). After

the alkaline pre-treatment, the bre surface has

been less tiny as well as its actual con s truction

has been altered. This outcome showed that the

exterior non-cellulosic layer, which is made up

of hemicelluloses and lignin, had been partially

removed. The produced Nano cellulose displayed

lower lignin levels than 0.35 percent, greater

thermal s trength than the raw sub s tantial, and

higher cry s tallinity (up 70%). Sumira Rashid et al

used rice grains with short, medium, and long husks

to extract Nano cellulose [31]. During the s teps of

delignication and acid hydrolysis, the noncellulose

amorphous and noncry s talline cellulose fractions

Bulgur bran hemi-

cellulose

Cellulose nano-

cry s tal (CNC)

and Cellulose

nanober (CNF)

Agri wa s te -

Bulgur bran

TGA,

DSC,

FTIR

(i)Revealed a compact

s tructure

(ii)Increased the tensile

s trength

(i)Water vapor per-

meability (WVP),

light transmittance,

overall colour

dierence, and

biodegradability all

are decreased

(ii)Contains lignin

(6.70%), s tarch,

potassium acetate

(i) Have great accuracy

(R2 = 0.9877)

(ii)10% (w/w) CNC-

and 10% (w/w) CNF

incorporated lms had

a 21.3 percent decrease

in FWS

[25]

Bleaching,

Acid hydrolysis

and

Solvent ca s ting

process

Bio-nanocom-

posite lms

with polyvinyl

alcohol (PVA)

Agri wa s te

- Sugarcane

bagasse and

coir

FTIR,

SEM,

DLS

(i)Good bases of Nano

cellulose

(ii) employed to create

bio-composites with

good s trength properties.

Bagasse-derived

Nano cellulose

emerged as irregular

and tiny circular

particles

The ultimate compres-

sive s trength (38.2

MPa) for CNCs of

coir,

[26]

(i)Pre-

treatment

with HCOOH

(ii)treatment

with

H2O2/

NaOH

(iii)disintegration

Cellulose Nano

Cry s tals

(CNC)

Vietnamese

agricultural

wa s te (Nypa

Fruticans

trunk,

coconut husk

ber, and rice

husk)

XRD, TGA,

TEM, and

FT-IR anal-

yses

(i)Nano cellulose bers

have improved thermal

s tability

(ii)The cellulose

material’s un s tructured

regions have been

attacked and de s troyed

by the acidity ions

CNCs have a greater

CrI than cellulose

and have a shorter

length than cellulose

CNCs nanobers have

a high cry s talline index

(almo s t 80%) and in-

creased heat s tability

[27]

(i)Alkali treat-

ment, Bleaching,

For CNC

(ii)Solution ca s t-

ing For CMC

Cellulose nano-

cry s tals (CNC)

Agri wa s te

- Pea hull

wa s te

SEM,

ATR-FTIR

analysis,

Gravimetric

Method,

DSC

CMC/CNC hybrid

sheets’ UV barrier,

mechanical properties,

and heat resi s tance were

enhanced.

The presence of

more sulphate

groups in the CMC/

CNC composite

lm resulted in a de-

creased hygroscopic

anity

(i)50.8 percent im-

provement in tensile

s trength

(ii)53.4 percent de-

crease in water vapor

permeability

[28]

Bleaching Carboxymethyl

cellulose

(CMC)

Agri wa s te

- Sugar cane

bagasse

TGA,

FTIR,

DSC

Sample C:(i)be s t for-

mulation (ii) food pack-

aging (iii) lowe s t water

vapor permeability

Expensive The lm generat-

ed from sample C

outperformed the other

samples A and B

[29]

PP: Performance Parameters

TS: Tensile s trength

HPHM & SCM: High-pressure homogenization method and Solution-ca s ting method

SPNFCs: S tarch reinforced with sugar palm Nano brillated cellulose

AW-SPF: Agriculture wa s te- Sugar palm bers

MP: Mechanical properties

CSBNF: Control s tarch bio nanocomposite lms

CF: Cellulose nanobers CN: Cellulose nanocry s tals

PSS: Plum seed shells

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

were successfully removed because of increased

cry s tallinity and altered infrared diraction.

Nanocelluloses are more heat resi s tant than

cellulose. The results are obtained using the te s ts

methods: SEM, TEM, AFM, NT-MDT, SOLVER

NANO, ZP, ATR-FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC, and HA.

Delignication in conjunction with bleaching led to

gradual depigmentation and turned the material’s

hue to white. The size, cry s tallinity, s trength, and

thermal s tability of long husks built at the nanoscale

were better than those of medium and short husks.

Cellulose nanomaterials are totally consi s tent with

fortifying biopolymers, according to J. F. Delgado et

al [32]. The eects of rice husk cellulose nanobers

(RHCNF) and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) on

water vapour transport and mechanical behavior

were examined in yea s t biomass lms made from

dispersions (processed by greater homogenized

and subsequently thermal treatment) at pH 6 and

11. BNC was created using a culture of the NRRL

B-42 s train of Gluconacetobacter xylinus. The te s ts

used to analyze the results are NMR, XRD, AFM,

SEM, and WVP. Nano bers could be successfully

added to yea s t matrices and both increased tensile

s trengths, while BNC was more eective than

RHCNF at improving the mechanical properties

of yea s t lms. Despite having identical diameters

and co s ting more to produce than RHNCF, only

BNC improved Young’s modulus, ela s tic modulus,

modulus of rupture, and mechanical hardness of

the yea s t matrix simultaneously. Although they had

little eect at pH 6, both supplements had a 5-weight

percent reduction in water vapor permeability in

lms made at pH 11. The impact of Nano cellulose

on the lm properties of edible coatings was s tudied

by Jeya Jeevahan Jayaraj et al [33]. To produce Nano

cellulose from rice husk, a three- s tage biochemical

process involving alkaline solution, whitening, and

acid hydrolysis was applied. Using native potato

s tarch, glycerin, and varying amounts of Nano

cellulose, the edible coatings (potato s tarch lms)

were produced using the solution ca s ting method (0

percent, 5 percent, 10 percent & 15 percent). AS tM

E96, Digital colorimetric method, and AS tM D882

are the te s t analysis methods conducted to determine

the WVTR, Film color, and Powered s trength of the

come s tible lms. It was discovered that the addition

of Small amounts of cellulosic had created lms with

a lower Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR),

more mechanical s trength, and greater transparency

compared to the control lms. Mechanical s trength

did not increase as the Nano cellulose content was

raised above 10%. With the rise in Nano cellulose

percentage from 5 % to 15 %, the WVTR of bio

nanocomposite edible lms reduced. S tarch

granules only have between 40 and 60 percent

visibility compared to Nano cellulose’s greater

than 95 percent visibility. According to A. Ganesh

Babu et al, bio-lms were produced utilizing

the solution ca s ting process employing liquid

polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and variable amounts

(5-25wt percent) of rice husk our as reinforcing

ller [34]. FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC, Tensile te s t,

Surface morphology inve s tigations, WVP, and

Antibacterial te s ts were used to examine the impact

of RHP on the PVA matrix. Some of the advantages

are (i) Bio-lms could tolerate temperatures of up

to 350 °C (ii) The s tronger interaction of polymer

chains is present with lower WVP levels (iii)

Exhibit s trong antibacterial activity (iv) Bio-lms

were clearly homogenous, free of fractures and

phase separation (v) Enhance the biolm’s thermo-

mechanical properties. The presence of hydrogen

bonding makes lms less exible. Tensile modulus

and tensile properties s teadily rise as RHP is infused

into the matrix, reaching their maximum values

at a concentration of 25 percent RHP in PVA and

23.32 MPa and 684 MPa, respectively. Himanshu

Gupta et al focused on using leftover lignocellulose

biomass (such as sugarcane bagasse and rice hulls)

to make carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), which is

then transformed into a biodegradable lm [35].

The methods of Mercerization and Etherication

are used to create CMC from SCB Cellulose

and Rice Hulls. The characterization is done by

the FTIR, XRD, MC, and TS te s t methods. The

biopolymer lm made from sugarcane bagasse

CMC had the highe s t s trength and elongation

when compared to lms manufactured from

conventional CMC and CMC made from rice

Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

hull. The bio-composite material formed from

mixed carbohydrate manufactured CMC solution

has exhibited superior mechanical properties in

comparison to the lm made from blended S tarch-

Commercial CMC solution (TS and Elongation).

Because rice husk contains a lot of sodium chloride

and sodium glycolate, (i) it has an adverse eect

on the material’s s trength properties and (ii)it has

lower DS and TS than the SCB. The degree of

CMC sub s titution and the DS of CMC both grow

as do the lm’s transparency, water levels, and

solubility. Table 2, describes an overall review of

the techniques such as Nano cellulose produced, the

material, te s ting method, advantages, limitations,

and performance parameters which was explained

under the biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose

from the rice husk..

3.3. Biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose

Table 2. Review on biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose from rice husk

Technique Nano

cellulose

Produced

Material Analysis Advantages Limitation PP Ref.

(i)NC - Bleaching,

Acid hydrolysis,

and Ultrasonic

(ii)SGF -Extrusion

(i)NC from

rice hulls

(ii)SGF

Rice hull SEM, TEM,

XRD, FTIR,

TGA, DSC

(i)Reduced opacity

(ii)Increased mechanical

characteri s tics

(iii)Less permeable to

water vapor

Less dense bre

layer with lessral

shape and the

exterior non-

cellulosic layer

removed

(i)Displayed lower

lignin levels than

0.35% (ii)Higher

thermal s tability than

the raw material (iii)

Higher cry s tallinity

(up 70%)

[30]

Delignication

and Acid

hydrolysis

Nano cellu-

lose

Rice grains

with short,

medium, and

long husks

SEM, TEM,

AFM,

NT-MDT,

SOLVER

NANO, ZP,

ATR-FTIR,

XRD, TGA,

DSC, HA

(i)Noncellulosic and

noncry s talline cellulose

removed

(ii)Increased cry s tallinity

(iii)Nanocelluloses are

more heat resi s tant than

cellulose and husks

Delignication

led to gradual

depigmentation

and turned the

material’s hue to

white

The size, cry s tallinity,

s trength, and thermal

s tability of long husks

were better than

medium and short

husks

[31]

(i)Yea s t biomass

lms - Dispersions

at pH 6 and 11

(ii)RHCNF and

BNC

Rice husk

cellulose

nanobers

(RHCNF)

and Bacterial

Nano cellu-

lose (BNC)

(i)For RHCNF

(ii)For BNC

(iii)For Yea s t

Biomass Films

NMR, XRD,

AFM, SEM,

WVP

(i) BNC was more

successful than RHCNF

in enhancing the

mechanical properties of

yea s t lms

(ii)BNC and RHCNF,

both boo s ted tensile

s trengths

(i)Only BNC

enhanced the

yea s t matrix’s

Young’s

modulus, tensile

s trength,

(ii) BNC is

more expensive

than producing

RHNCF

Water vapor

permeability was

reduced by 5 weight

percent in both

reinforcements in

lms created at pH 11.

[32]

(i)Nano cellulose

- Alkaline

treatment,

Bleaching, and

Acid hydrolysis

(ii)Potato s tarch

lms - Solution

ca s ting method

Nano cellu-

lose

(i)For NC –

Rice Husk

(ii)For Potato

S tarch Film -

glycerol with

varied NC (0

- 15 % )

AS tM E96,

Digital

colorimetry

method, AS tM

D882

(i)Lower Water Vapour

Transmission Rate

(WVTR)

(ii)Greater mechanical

s trength

(iii)Greater transparency

Mechanical

s trength did not

increase as the

Nano cellulose

content was

raised above 10%

(i)Rise in Nano

cellulose percentage

from 5 % to 15

% - WVTR of bio

nanocomposite edible

lms reduced. (ii)The

transparency of Nano

cellulose is greater

than 95%

[33]

Solution ca s ting

method

Polyvinyl

alcohol (PVA)

Rice Hull

powder as ller

FTIR, XRD,

TGA, DSC,

Tensile te s t,

Surface

morphology

s tudies,

WVP and

Antibacterial

te s ting

(i)Tolerate up to 350 °C

(ii)High interaction

of polymer chains

(iii)Exhibit s trong

antibacterial activity

(iv)Bio-lms were

clearly homogenous,

electrical and thermal

qualities.

Lower exibility

of lms is caused

by the exi s tence

of hydrogen

bonds

Tensile s trength

and tensile modulus

- 23.32 MPa and

684 MPa, at a

concentration of 25

percent RHP in PVA.

[34]

Mercerization and

Etherication

CMC

from SCB

Cellulose and

Rice Hulls

Rice husk and

Sugarcane

bagasse

FTIR, XRD,

MC, TS

(i)Had the highe s t tensile

s trength and elongation

(ii)Improved machine-

driven possessions (TS

and Elongation)

(i) negatively

aect the s trength

of the material

(ii) the DS and

TS of the rice

hull CMC were

lower than those

of the SCB

With an increase in

DS of CMC and as

the degree of CMC

sub s tituition grew

the lm’s opacity,

moi s ture content,

and solubility also

increases

[35]

NC: Nano cellulose

SGF: S tarch glycerol lms

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

from Various Plant Extracts

Using a more eective, economical enzymatic

hydrolysis pathway, R. Reshmy et al proposed a

s traightforward method for the extraction of Nano

cellulose from sugarcane bagasse [36]. It was

possible to extract NC bres from sugarcane

bagasse. NC was produced by alkaline treatment,

bleaching, and acid hydrolysis. The solvent

ca s ting method was used to create thin lms. FT-

IR, XRD, FESEM, DLS, and AS tM D 2216

methods were used to characterize the lms. Non-

edible su s tainable material usefulness, co s t

eciency, simple ease of processing, minimal

energy usage, non-hazardousness, and simple

degradation rate are advantages of this upgraded

technology. These thin lms might degrade well

in situations with soil, salt, acid, and alkaline

conditions. Glycerol, a pla s ticizer, is present in

NC, which lessens its tendency to inate. The

acid resi s tance is increasing due to the use of

glycerol as a pla s ticizer and the reduction in

weight loss from 50% to about 40% is a result of

the pla s ticizers included in NC. Nano cellulose

was sugge s ted to be added to polyvinyl alcohol by

Mónica Sánchez-Gutiérrez et al in order to

enhance the technical prowess of the composite

coating used for food packaging (PVA) [37]. PVA

lms reinforced with (L)CNFs derived from olive

tree trimming leftovers were manufactured using

the solvent ca s ting method. Micro cellulosic was

created from pulp that had been both dyed and

unbleached using a mechanical and TEMPO

preparation. The te s t methods are as follows:

Perkin Elmer UV-Vis Lambda 25

spectrophotometer, FTIR, TGA, SEM, XRD, and

AS tM E96/E96M-10. From six percent for the

pure PVA lm to 50 percent and 24 percent,

respectively. For unbleached and bleached Nano

cellulose, the UV barrier was increased in terms

of optical properties. Associated with pure PVA

lm, the antioxidant capacity of mechanical Nano

cellulose lms made without bleaching

signicantly increased (5.3%). The mechanical

Nano cellulose lms with a 5% unbleached

component demon s trated noticeably greater

tensile s trength as compared to pure PVA lm.

The 5 percent Nano cellulose lms were also

improved in terms of their thermal properties and

impermeability. They oered an oxygen shield

akin to aluminum layers and pla s tic lms while

reducing water vapour leakage by 38–59%.

Because they are more sensitive to environmental

conditions like humidity and temperature. (L)

CNF-reinforced lms obtained by mechanical

pretreatment (MU and MB) needed a lengthier

s tabilization period than (L)CNF-reinforced lms

obtained through TEMPO pretreatment (TU and

TB). This behavior is displayed by other materials,

such as EVOH, which are greatly aected by the

surrounding humidity. According to Mochamad

Asro et al, a Yam Bean (YB) s tarch sub s trate and

Micro Cellulosic Water Hyacinth Fiber (WHF)

reinforcing were employed to develop bio

nanocomposites utilizing the ca s ting process [38].

The secret to creating good bio nanocomposites

was adding Micro viscose as a solution to the YB

s tarch matrix, allowing it to gel, and then briey

sonicating it. The eect of Nano cellulose

suspension loading on the YB s tarch matrix was

examined using mechanical te s ting, Scanning

Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-Ray Diraction

(XRD), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA),

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and

wettability. After the addition of Nano cellulose,

tensile s trength (TS) and tensile modulus (TM)

greatly increased. With higher Micro

lignocellulosic content, heat resi s tance and water

resi s tance were also improved. Bio-

nanocomposites have a rougher fracture surface

than pure YB s tarch sheets. The greate s t amounts

of Nano cellulose (1 wt. percent) were used to

achieve the maximum values for TS (5.8 MPa)

and TM (403 MPa). With ju s t a little more than 1

weight percent of extra Nano cellulose, the bio-

nanocomposite’s cry s tallinity index (CrI)

increased by more than 200 percent. Zineb Kassab

et al proposed that Sunower oil cake (SOC) was

found to be a bio-sourced resource for the

manufacture of cellulose nanocry s tals (CNC)

after chemical processing and sulfuric acid

Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

hydrolysis [39]. This s tudy also looked into the

newly created CNC’s polymer nanoreinforcing

capabilities. PVA-based nanocomposite lms

with CNC30 concentrations of 1, 3, 5, and 8

weight percent were produced using the solvent

ca s ting technique. The rheological properties of

CNC solutions at dierent percentages were

evaluated using sy s temic resi s tance s tiness

s tudies and cyclic dynamic experiments. When

the mechanical and transparency properties of

CNC-lled PVA nanocomposite lms were

examined at various CNC contents (1, 3, 5, and 8

wt%), clear nanocomposite products with high

hardness properties were produced. The resultant

CNC displayed remarkable saturated solution

s tabilization and gel-like properties at very low

CNC concentrations. Nanocomposite materials

with signicantly better tensile characteri s tics

were produced by incorporating CNC into a PVA

polymeric matrix. The addition of CNC causes

slight changes in the FTIR spectra of PVA

nanocomposites that are lled with CNC. It is

possible to see a tiny variation in the OH s tretching

vibration’s intensity. When 8-weight percent

CNC was added to PVA-based nanocomposite

lms, the tensile s trength and ela s tic modulus

improved by 107 and 78%, respectively. Swarup

Roy and Jong-Whan Rhim showed that an

extremely s table nanoscale Pickering

emulsion(PE) was made using natural clove bud

essential oil s tabilized with nanocellulose bre

[40]. The PE was used to produce gelatin and agar

functional lms. The gelatin/agar-based

bidirectional compound lm was made using the

solution ca s ting technique, and the cellulose

nanober-based PE was made by preparing a

cellulose nanober solution. AS tM D 882–88,

TGA, FESEM, FTIR, and Chroma meter are te s ts

taken to predict the characterization. The inclusion

of PE only slightly changed the mechanical

properties and vapor impermeability of the

gelatin/agar-based lm, with no discernible

impact on temperature. Without aecting the

lm’s transparency, the inclusion of PE also gave

it exceptional UV-barrier qualities. Additionally,

the composite lm had s trong antioxidant

properties. The power of the gelatin/agar lm was

signicantly impacted by the addition of PEC.

The lm has high transmittance to UV and visible

light, with corresponding T280 and T660 values

of 26.9%, 88.0%, and 1.4 %. The neat gelatin/

agar lm’s minimally changed WVP was 0.59 x

10-9 gm.m-2Pa-1s-1. The utilization of s tatic

intermittent fed-batch (SIFB) equipment and a

cheap medium, such as fermentation black tea,

according to Chhavi Sharma et al, this s tudy

proposes a technique with indu s trial signicance

for the creation of inexpensive and

environmentally friendly bacterial Nano cellulose

(BNC) lms [41]. Chitosan, a natural polymer,

successfully altered the BNC lm (BNC-chitosan

lm). SCOBY, black tea, and tomatoes were the

materials used. The lms were characterized

using FE-SEM (Field Emission Scanning Electron

Microscopy), ATR-FTIR (Attenuated Total

Reectance and Fourier Transform Infrared

Spectrometry), X-ray diraction (XRD), and

thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Because of

their high tensile properties, cry s tallinity, air

resi s tance, and tomato shelf life evaluation, BNC-

chitosan coatings have a considerable potential to

be used for economical encapsulation, which is

unque s tionably wanted by the packaging sector.

The surface morphology of BNC changed after

chitosan treatment. BNC yield was higher in this

modied bioprocess (29.2 g L-1) than in the

s tandard s tatic approach (13.3 g L-1) with a BNC

yield of 29.2 g L-1. Segal method calculations

showed that the CrI of BNC formed via the SIFB

technique was 79.2 percent(%), which is nearly

identical to the CrI of BNC previously shaped

under the traditional xed technique (79.4 %).

The upcoming Table 3, describes an overall

review of the techniques such as, Nano cellulose

produced, the material, tes ting method,

advantages, limitations, and performance

parameters which was explained under the

biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose from

various plant extracts.

3.4. Biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

Gelatin and carbohydrate sub s trates were

examined by S.M. Noorbakhsh-Soltani et al for

the integration of Nano-cellulose [42]. Chitosan

enhances the mechanical, anti-fungal, and

waterproong properties of materials. The response

surface approach is used in the design and analysis

of experiments. Acid hydrolysis is used to create

Nano cellulose, which is then wet-processed and

added to base matrices. Films are produced by

lm ca s ting techniques. The s trength properties,

Table 3. Review on biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose from various plant extracts

Technique Used Nano

cellulose

Produced

Mate-

rial

Analysis Advantages Limitation Performance

Parameters

Ref.

(i)NC - Alkaline

treatment,

Bleaching, and

Acid hydrolysis

(ii)Thin lms -

Solvent ca s ting

method

NC Fibres Sug-

arcane

bagasse

FT-IR,

XRD,

FESEM,

DLS,

AS tM D

2216

Non-edible renewable

feed s tock utility, co s t-

eectiveness, easy

processibility, less

energy consumption,

non-hazardous and easy

degradability

Glycerol, a

pla s ticizer, is

present in NC,

which lessens

its tendency to

inate

(i)Acid resi s tance

is increasing (ii)

The reduction in

weight loss from

50% to about

40% is a result of

the pla s ticizers

included in NC

[36]

(i)Nano cellulose

- Mechanical

and TEMPO

preparation

(ii) PVA lms

with (L)CNF

reinforcement -

Solvent ca s ting

PVA lms

reinforced

with (L)

CNFs

Olive

tree

pruning

scraps

Perkin

Elmer

UV/VIS

FTIR,

TGA,

SEM,

XRD,

AS tM E96/

E96M-10.

(i)UV barrier was raised

(ii)Antioxidant capacity

of mechanical Nano

cellulose lms is

increased

(iii)Had higher tensile

s trength

(iv)Thermal s tability (v)

Reduced water vapor

permeability by 38–59%

(vi) oxygen barrier

(L)CNF-

reinforced lms

required a longer

s tabilisation

period than (L)

CNF-reinforced

lms obtained

by TEMPO

pretreatment

(i)UV barrier

increased – 50%

& 24%

(ii)Antioxidant

capacity increased

– 5.3%

(iii)Reduced water

vapor permeability

- 38–59%

[37]

(i)NC- Gelation

and a brief Soni-

cation

(ii)Bionanocom-

posite Film -

Ca s ting method

(i)Nano

cellulose -

(WHF)

(ii)Film -

Yam Bean

(YB)

Yam

Beam

TT, SEM,

XRD, TGA,

FTIR, MA

(i)Tensile s trength (TS)

and Tensile modulus

(TM) greatly increased

(ii)Thermal s tability and

moi s ture resi s tance were

also raised

Bio-nanocom-

posites have a

rougher fracture

surface than pure

YB s tarch sheet

(i)TS- 5.8 MPa

and TM -403 MPa

(ii)CrI-increased

by more than 200

percent

[38]

(i)Nano cellulose

- Chemical

processing and

Sulfuric acid

hydrolysis

(ii)Film - Solvent

ca s ting method

(i)Cellulose

nanocry s tals

(CNC)

(ii)PVA-

based nano-

composite

lms

Sun-

ower

oil cake

(SOC)

observations

of con s tant

rheological

properties

and cyclic

dynamic

te s ts

(i)Has transparent

nanocomposite materials

with potent mechanical

properties

(ii)Exhibited exceptional

aqueous colloidal

s tability and gel-like

behavior

(iii)Has better tensile

characteri s tics

(i)Addition of

CNC causes

slight changes in

the FTIR of PVA

nanocomposites

with CNC.

(ii)A tiny

variation in the

OH s tretching

vibration’s

intensity

Ela s tic mechanical

and physical

properties improved

by 107 and 78%,

respectively.

[39]

(i)Nano cellulose

(ii) Film -

Solution ca s ting

method

(i)Nano

cellulose -

CNFPE

(ii)Film -

Gelatin/

Agar-based

BCF

CBN

s tabi-

lized

with

Nano

cellulose

ber

AS tM D

882–88,

TGA,

FESEM,

FTIR,

Chroma

meter

(i)Increased the

mechanical s trength

and decreased the vapor

barrier qualities of the

gelatin/agar-based lm

(ii)Good UV-barrier

qualities

(iii)Had s trong

antioxidant properties

The s trength

of the gelatin/

agar lm was

signicantly

impacted by the

addition of PEC

(i)High

transparency to UV

and visible light

- 26.9 1.3 %, 88.0

1.4 % T280 and

T660

(ii)Gelatin/agar

lm’s WVP - 0.59

10 9 g.m./ m2. Pa.s

[40]

S tatic intermittent

fed-batch (SIFB)

technology

(i)NC -

(BNC)

(ii)Film

- BNC-chi-

tosan lm

SCOBY,

black

tea and

toma-

toes

FESEM,

ATR-FTIR,

XRD, TGA

(i)Good mechanical

s trength

(ii)Cry s talline nature

(iii)Resi s tance to air

(iv)Shelf life evaluation

of tomatoes

The surface mor-

phology of BNC

changed after

chitosan treatment

(i)BNC yield was

higher - 29.2 gL-1

(ii)CrI of BNC

formed via SIFB

method - 79.2 %

[41]

WHF: Water Hyacinth Fiber

CNFPE: Cellulose nanober-based PE

CBNO: Clove bud natural essential oil

BCF: Binary composite lm

BNC: Bacterial Nano cellulose

Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

s torage of food, clarity in visible and ultraviolet

light, and water contact angle are also conducted

on the Nano-composite lms. On the ideal lms,

DSC/TGA, SEM, TEM, XRD, and air permeability

te s ts are also carried out. The advantages are

include, (i) High ela s ticity, s trength properties,

extension to break, clarity, and possibly food s tu

s torage properties of both gelatin and s tarch bases

can be improved (ii) Decrease in UV transmittance

(iii) Gelatin lms oer greater transparency,

ela s tic modulus, and break length than s tarch

lms. According to the results of the s tress- s train

curves, which measure the mechanical s trength of

nanocomposite lms, some of the samples exhibit

thinning, others exhibit thickening, and some exhibit

a s traightforward linear response. According to the

results, increasing the amount of Nano cellulose to

10% raises the mechanical properties at the break

to 8121 MN m-2, while decreasing the ductility.

Furthermore, chitosan content can be increased

from 5% to 30% to enhance food s torage for up

to 15 days. Using the wire extension method,

Yasmim Montero et al sugge s ted making PBAT

active lms that were packed with nanocellulose

and infused with cinnamon essential oil [43].

The connections among NC-EO-PBAT were

inve s tigated, and the results demon s trated that the

direct closeness between the EO and the PBAT

matrix changed the conformations of the polymer

molecules. FT-Raman, FTIR, TGA, and WVP are

the te s ts undergone for the process. The modied

CNF lms displayed a controlled Fickian diusion,

a greater essential oil release, reduced water vapor

permeability, and eective ller dispersion. The

lm at 3085 cm1 lo s t its form and intensity after

3 wt% CNF was inserted. Fruits loaded in lms

with 0.5 weight percent modied-CNF have little

weight reduction, better quality maintenance, and

no fungal attack after 15 s torage periods. According

to the report of Syaq et al, liquid ca s ting was

used to generate biodegradable nanocomposite

lms using sugar palm s tarch (SPS), sugar palm

nanocry s talline cellulose (SPNCC), and cinnamon

essential oil (EO) [44]. By using an acid hydrolysis

technique, sugar palm Nano cry s talline celluloses

(SPNCC) was created. Solution-ca s t SPS/SPNCC

nanocomposite coatings with added cinnamon

essential oil were created. The SEM, AS tM D

644, AS tM 570, FTIR, disk diusion method

(DDM), and Agar disc method (ADM) are the te s t

methods used to nd o ut t he r esults. Mechanical

characteri s tics experiments on lms containing

cinnamon EO revealed improved tensile s trength

and tensile s tiness n umbers f rom 4 .8 t o 5.3

MPa and 122.49 to 130.52 MPa, respectively. In

addition, the density was lowered from 1.38 to 1.31

g cm-3 and the moi s ture content was reduced from

13.65 to 12.33 percent, respectively. The results

unambiguously demon s trate that the introduction

of cinnamon essential oil caused a decrease in

the lms’ elongation at break, from 18.14 to 3.35

percent.

The eects o f d extran-coated s ilver nanoparticle

loading on the robotic, boundary, and antibacterial

activities of skinny movies produced from cellulose

nanobrils by solvent evaporation technique were

shown by Vesna Lazi’c et al [45]. They showed

an environmentally friendly and food-preservative

packing material. The lm is created using hybrid

materials based on CNF and Ag NPs covered with

dextran. The te s t methods employed to ascertain the

properties of the lm i nclude T EM, SEM, AS tM

D3985, and a Shimadzu AGS-X electromechanical

universal te s ting machine. The advantages of adding

dextran are as follows: (i) Acts as dispersing media

(ii) it is an additive that seals out moi s ture (iii) It

has insucient oxygen penetrability (iv) Keeps the

food safe from bacterial growth. These lms also

exhibit better Young’s moduli while maintaining

their exibility and tensile s trength. Both articial

sub s trates like hydroxyapatite and magnetite, as

well as Ag NPs attached to macroporous polymer

sub s trates, demon s trate lesser antibacterial activity

again s t S. aureus than E. coli. The 99.9% suppression

of Escherichia coli after ve repetitive cycles of 24

h exposed to 0.9 percent NaCl aqueous solution

was demon s trated, supported by a su s tained release

of Ag+ ions (underneath the toxicants dangerous

criterion). Lower oxygen transmitting percentages

from 2.07 to 1.40-0.78 cm3 m-2 d-1, hydrophilicity

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

from 20.80 to 52.40 for MilliQ water, and from 350-

370 to 620-740 for 3 % acetic acid and 0.9 % NaCl

simulant solutions were obtained.

Nano-chitosan (NCH), Nano-cellulose (NCL), and

cellulose derivatives were employed by Narges

Jannatyha et al as biodegradable biopolymers [46].

Various amounts of nano chitosan or nanocellulose

were added using ca s ting procedures to the

carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC) lm solution

(0.1, 0.5, and 1 percent). XRD, DSC, and DC

are the te s t methods conducted to predict the

results. Some of the advantages are: (i) When

the concentration of the nanocomposite rose, the

WVP of the polymer and nanoller decreased

(ii) By increasing concentration, the TS and

elongation at the break of a nanocomposite lm

were improved (iii) CMC/NCH provides more

benets than CMC/NCL biopolymer when

used as a biocompatible lm (iv) Particularly at

concentrations of 1%, physical characteri s tics like

water solubility(WS), moi s ture content(MC), and

moi s ture absorption(MA) were lowered by both

CMC/NCH and NCL and also causes the nanoller

in CMC lm to aggregate. The antibacterial

properties of CMC and CMC/NCL are absent. The

physical and thermal properties in CMC/NCH were

lower than CMC/NCL for the concentration p <

0.05. The melting points (Tg) of CMC, CMC/NCL

1 %, and CMC/NCH 1 % lms were, 206.31 °C,

221.97 °C, and 200.91 °C, respectively. Nanoller

utilized (1%) WS decreased to 18% and 33% for

CMC/NCL and CMC/NCH lms, respectively.

Sapuan et al reported that the mechanical, barrier

and thermal characteri s tics of nanocellulose-

reinforced polymer composites were improved

[47]. Enhancing the useful qualities of TPS, PLA,

and PBS for food packaging through the addition

of Nano cellulose is undoubtedly advantageous.

Thermopla s tic s tarch (TPS), polylactic acid

(PLA), and polybutylene succinate (PBS) were

selected as the alternatives because they are easily

accessible, biodegradable, and have high food

contact properties. FESEM and SEM are the te s ts

conducted. Reinforcing Nano cellulose has many

advantages such as, (i) Tensile s trength and ela s tic

modulus are improved by PLA biocomposites (ii)

Poor water barrier was improved by TPS/Nano

cellulose (iii) The mechanical and oxygen barrier

characteri s tics of PLA and PBS were enhanced.

In comparison to pure PBSA, CNN decreased

the tensile s trength and elongation at break. Their

usable characteri s tics did not necessarily increase

with increased Nano cellulose loading. If the

amount of Nano cellulose in the polymers was too

high, agglomeration took place. The hydrophilic

Nano cellulose and hydrophilic PLA are unsuitable

and result in weak matrix interaction, hence only

low Nano cellulose loadings between 0.5 and

2 weight percent are required for the optimum

results. On the other hand, the addition of 2%

PA increased the s trength of PBS/CNN by about

120%. (95:5). Table 4 describes an overall review

of the techniques such as, Nano cellulose

produced, the material, tes ting method, advantages,

limitations, and performance parameters which

was explained under the direction - Biodegradable

lms using Nano cellulose from polymer composite

material in the food packaging.

4. Discussion

Petroleum-based products have already been

employed in a variety of indu s tries, but packaged

foods have beneted mo s t from their minimal price

and s trong mechanical and physical properties. But

it is non-biodegradable and also produces numerous

health hazards. Pla s tic or petroleum-based food

containers need to be replaced in order to do so,

various types of research have been going on for

producing biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose

extracted from various biodegradable wa s tes such

as agri-wa s te, various plant extracts, non-woody

biomass, biopolymer composite materials, etc.

Nano cellulose is produced by various extraction

methods and the basic method is discussed in

the paper. The three primary methods utilized

to create Nano cellulose from diverse extracts

are acid degradation, enzymatic hydrolysis, and

electromechanical process. The common method

used to make biodegradable composite lms is

a solvent-ca s ting method. The types of Nano

Anal. Methods Environ. Chem. J. 5 (4) (2022) 20-42

cellulose are CNF, CNC, and BNC. The XRD,

SEM, TEM, DSC, FTIR, and FE-SEM are some of

the te s t methods used to characterize biodegradable

composite lms. The tensile properties and

physical characteri s tics of biodegradable lms

and biodegradable composite lms are enhanced

overall by the use of nanocellulose. Water vapor

permeability, Moi s ture content, etc., are reduced

thus enabling the biodegradable lms more suitable

and ecient for food packaging.

Table 4. Review on biodegradable lms using Nano cellulose from polymer composite material

in Food Packaging Reduced

Technique Nano cellulose

Produced

Material Analysis Advantages Limitation Performance Param-

eters

Ref.

(i)Nano

cellulose - Acid

hydrolysis

(ii)Film -

lm ca s ting

technique

Nano-compos-

ite lms

Gelatin,

S tarch,

Chitosan

air

permeability,

tensile

s trength, food

preservation,

transparency

in visible and

UV light

(i) High ela s ticity, ela s-

tic modulus, extension

to break, clarity can be

improved.

(ii) Decrease in UV

transmittance

(iii)In comparison to

s tarch lms, gelatin

lms have better trans-

parency

the s tress- s train

curves , thinning,

thickening, linear

line response

(i)Nano cellulose

content to 10%, tensile

s trength at break -

increase to 8121 MN/

m2, lowers the elonga-

tion at break

(ii)Increasing the

chitosan content from

5% to 30% - improve

food preservation for

up to 15 days

[42]

Wire extension

method

NC-EO-PBAT

Films

PBAT,

Cellulose

nanobers,

Cinnamon

oil

FT-Raman,

FTIR, TGA,

WVP

(i)Fickian diusion,

(ii)Greater essential oil

release

(iii)Reduced water

vapor permeability

(iv)Eective ller

dispersion

After the addition

of 3 wt. % CNF, the

lm at 3085 cm1

lo s t its form and

intensity

The fruits sealed in

lms with 0.5 weight

percent modied-CNF

have very little losing

weight, better fresh

preservation, and no

fungal attack after 15

s torage periods.

[43]

(i)Nano

cellulose - Acid

hydrolysis

process

(ii)Film -

Solution ca s ting

method

(i)Nano cellu-

lose - (SPNCC)

(ii)Film - SPS/

SPNCC

Sugar palm

s tarch

(SPS)/

(SPNCC)

and

Cinnamon

essential oil

(EO)

SEM, AS tM

D 644, AS tM

570, FTIR,

DDM, ADM

(i) Enhanced tensile

s trength and tensile

modulus values

(ii)The moi s ture content

and density were

decreased

Addition of cinna-

mon EO reduced

the lms’ elongation

at break to drop

from 18.14 - 3.35 %

to 13.9 - 5.57 %

(i) Enhanced TS and

TM - 4.8 to 5.3 MPa

and 122.49 to 130.52

MPa MC and

thickness were

decreased - 13.65 to

12.33 % and 1.38 to

1.31 g cm-3

[44]

Solvent ca s ting

method

Ag NPs with

dextran coating

and CNF-based

composite

sheets

Dextran,

coated

AgNPs and

Cellulose

nanobrils

TEM, SEM,

AS tM D3985,

a Shimadzu

AGS-X

electro-

mechanical

machine

1. Dextran

(i) Act as dispersing

(ii)Moi s ture-resi s tant

sealable additive (iii)

Reduced oxygen

permeability

2.Films also exhibit

better Young’s moduli

while maintaining their

exibility and tensile

s trength.

Ag NPs as well as

inorganic supports

like hydroxyapatite

and magnetite

both exhibit lower

antibacterial

ecacy again s t S.

aureus than E. coli

(i)Reduced OTR -

from 2.07 to 1.40-0.78

(ii)Hydrophilicity

- from 20.8◦ to 52.4◦

for MilliQ water, from

35-37◦ to 62-74◦ for

3 % acetic acid, 0.9

% NaCl simulant

solutions yielding a

99.9 % inhibition of

E-Coli

[45]

Ca s ting

technique

CMC/NCH and

CMC/NCL

Nano-

chitosan

(NCH),

Nano-

cellulose

(NCL),

Cellulose

derivative

and (CMC)

XRD, DSC,

(i)Concentration of the

nanocomposite rose, the

VWP decreased

(ii) Enhanced TS and

elongation at break

(iii)CMC/NCH provides

more benets than

CMC/NCL

(iv)At 1%, physical

characteri s tics lowered

by both CMC/NCH and

NCL

(i)The antibacterial

of CMC and CMC/

NCL are absent

(ii)The physical and

thermal properties

in CMC/NCH were

lower than CMC/

NCL for the con-

centration p < 0.05.

(i)Tg of CMC, CMC/

NCL 1 %, and CMC/

NCH 1 % lms -

206.31 °C, 221.97 °C,

and 200.91 °C.

(ii)Nanoller utilized

(1%) WS decreased

- 18% and 33% for

CMC/NCL and CMC/

NCH lms

[46]

Technique s tat-

ed as in citation

[47]

Nano cellulose

reinforced poly-

mer composites

TPS, PLA,

and PBS

FESEM and

SEM

(i) Tensile s trength

and ela s tic modulus

are improved by PLA

biocomposites (ii) Poor

water barrier were

improved by TPS/Nano

cellulose

(i)In comparison

to pure PBSA,

CNN decreased the

tensile s trength and

elongation at break

(i)For be s t outcomes

- between 0.5 %

and 2 weight % are

necessary

(ii)Addition of 2 % PA

enhanced the tensile

s trength of PBS/CNN

by around 120 %

(95:5)

[47]

SPNCC: Sugar palm nanocry s talline celluloses

Review of food packaging application by nanocellulose Asha Valsalan et al

5. Challenges and Future Research

There are more recent advancements have emerged

in the development of biodegradable lms using

Nano cellulose from various biodegradable extracts

but there are s till some parameters to be enhanced.

Some of the key points to be noted for future

research are as follows: (i) Due to the large variety

of bio-based sub s trates and essential oils oered, it

is dicult to make general recommendations for the

creation of proactive packaging products when using

them. Greater attention should be paid to sensory

evaluation, making additional, and the synergi s tic

eects of numerous essential oils in order to enhance

the active packaging on various food products [48]

(ii) BNC oers intriguing uses in food packaging,

but these uses aren’t being fully inve s tigated

because to the material’s high production co s ts

and dicult commercialization in the packaging

indu s try [49] (iii) Even with new approaches that

have enabled controlled delivery of antibacterial

agents in the appearance of NC feasible, utilizing

bio-polymers as natural resources with appropriate

membrane characteri s tics, s trength properties, and

satisfying the regulations for packaged foods is

s till a dicult problem to tackle [49]. (iv) More

research is necessary to determine the eectiveness

and durability of Nano cellulose-based packaging

technologies during the real food warehouse and

transportation process [50]. (v) Biopolymer-based

nanocomposites begin to replace conventional

synthetic pla s tic products in the near future only if:

I. It would be energy and co s t-eective to isolate

cellulose and turn it into nanoparticles;

II. Hydrophilic polymers and hydrophobic natural

bers (cellulose) would be able to coexi s t

without conict;

III. It is advisable to lessen the variability of the

extracted ber’s characteri s tics

IV. It is advisable to produce compatibilizers,

coupling agents, and adhesives from renewable

sources;

V. Nanocomposites’ biodegradability and life

cycle assessment should be thoroughly s tudied;

VI. It is necessary to create new processing

technologies [51].

6. Conclusion

In this review paper, we have analyzed Nano

cellulose, its types, and the basic extraction

methods. The reason for using Nano cellulose-

based biodegradable lms in food packaging is

also discussed. Also, we have explored the recent

research on the development of biodegradable

lms using Nano cellulose from agricultural wa s te,

rice husk, various plant extracts, and biopolymer

composite materials on food packaging. The

techniques used, other Nano cellulose produced,

various te s t methods adopted to dene the

characteri s tics of the lms, advantages,

limitations, and performance parameters are

discussed briey in the experimental section.

The result section summarizes the paper, and

other sections give the future research points

that should be considered. From this review, we

learned that developing biodegradable lms using

Nano cellulose has various valuable parameters

in food packaging. A notable replacement for

synthetic products has been highlighted for

nanocomposites, particularly those that contain

Nano cellulose as reinforcement.

7. Funding and Conict of Intere s t

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other

support were received during the preparation of

this manuscript. I hereby declare that the disclosed

information is correct and that no other situation

of real, potential or apparent conict of intere s t is

known to me.

8. Acknowledgment

We would like to thank Sree Buddha College

of Engineering, Pattoor, Kerala, and Chemi s try

department of Kalasalingam Academy of Research

and Education, Krishnakovil, India.

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